a)the resistivity and for the material of the rod at 20 ∘C is 1.53 × 10⁻⁷ Ω m.
b) the temperature coefficient of resistivity at 20 ∘Cfor the material of the rod is 7.29 × 10⁻³ K⁻¹.
a) Resistivity is defined as the resistance offered by a wire of unit length and unit area of cross-section. Its SI unit is Ω m.
It depends on temperature and is represented by the symbol ρ. Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to the voltage across the two points.
Hence the formula for resistivity is given by:
ρ = RA / L
Where,ρ = Resistivity of the material.
A = Area of cross-section of the rod
L = Length of the rod
R = Resistance
We can calculate R from the following equation:
R = V / I
Where, V = Potential difference across the rod
I = Current flowing through the rod.
The resistivity and the material of the rod at 20 °C are given by:ρ = RA / L= [(D/2)²π] [V/I] / L= [(0.0045/2)²π] [13/18.3] / 1.7= 1.53 × 10⁻⁷ Ω m.
b) Temperature coefficient of resistivity is defined as the change in resistivity per degree change in temperature. It is given by:
α = (ρ₂ - ρ₁) / ρ₁ (T₂ - T₁)
Where,α = Temperature coefficient of resistivity.
ρ₂ = Resistivity at 92 °C.
ρ₁ = Resistivity at 20 °C.T₂ = 92 + 273 = 365 K.T₁ = 20 + 273 = 293 K.
Substituting the values of ρ₂, ρ₁, T₂, and T₁ in the formula, we get:
α = (1.57 × 10⁻⁷ - 1.53 × 10⁻⁷) / (1.53 × 10⁻⁷) (365 - 293)= 3.88 × 10⁻⁴ / 0.0531= 7.29 × 10⁻³ K⁻¹.
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What is the relation between magnetic flux density(B) and vector magnetic potential(A)?
Give an example of a situation in which B is zero and A is not.
B is the curl of A according to Ampere's law, and an example of B being zero while A is not is a region inside a solenoid where the magnetic field cancels out but the magnetic vector potential is non-zero.
The relation between magnetic flux density (B) and vector magnetic potential (A) is given by Ampere's law in magnetostatics:
B = curl(A)
This equation states that the magnetic flux density B is equal to the curl (rotational) of the vector magnetic potential A.
An example situation in which B is zero and A is not is a uniform magnetic field passing through a cylindrical region with a hollow solenoid inside. Inside the solenoid, the magnetic field is zero (B = 0) due to the cancellation of the magnetic fields generated by the current-carrying wires. However, the vector magnetic potential A is not zero as it can represent the non-zero magnetic vector potential field associated with the current flowing in the solenoid.
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A three phase, 50 Hz overhead line has regularly transposed conductors are horizontally 4 m apart. The capacitance of such line is 0.01 μF/km. Recalculate the capacitance per km to neutral when conductors are placed equilaterally spaced 4 m apart and regularly transposed.
A. 0.0101 μF/km
B. 0.0102 μF/km
C. 0.0103 μF/km
D. 0.0104 μF/km
The capacitance per kilometer to neutral in the equilateral arrangement is approximately 0.00667 μF/km.
To calculate the capacitance per kilometer to neutral when conductors are placed equilaterally spaced 4 m apart and regularly transposed, we can use the formula for the capacitance of an equilateral triangle arrangement of conductors:
Ceq = (2/3) * C
where Ceq is the capacitance per kilometer to neutral in the equilateral arrangement, and C is the capacitance per kilometer in the original arrangement.
Given that the capacitance of the original arrangement is 0.01 μF/km, we can calculate the capacitance per kilometer to neutral in the equilateral arrangement:
Ceq = (2/3) * C
= (2/3) * 0.01 μF/km
≈ 0.00667 μF/km
Therefore, the capacitance per kilometer is approximately 0.00667 μF/km.
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a) During a thermodynamic cycle gas undergoes three different processes beginning at an initial state where p1-1.5 bar, V₁ =2.5 m³ and U₁ =61 kJ. The processes are as follows: (i) Process 1-2: Compression with pV= constant to p2 = 3 bar, U₂ = 710 kJ 3 (ii) Process 2-3: W2-3 = 0, Q2-3= -200 kJ, and (iii) Process 3-1: W3-1 +100 kJ. Determine the heat interactions for processes 1-2 and 3-1 i.e. Q1-2 and Q3-1.\
The heat interactions for processes 1-2 and 3-1 are 0 kJ and 100 kJ
A thermodynamic cycle is a process where there is a conversion of thermal energy into mechanical work. It is a series of processes through which a thermodynamic system goes to produce useful work. The heat interactions for processes 1-2 and 3-1 can be determined as follows:
During process 1-2, gas undergoes compression with pV= constant to p2 = 3 bar. This process is isobaric and hence the heat interactions can be determined using the formula Q=ΔH - W where ΔH is the change in enthalpy and W is the work done.
Since the gas undergoes compression, the work done is negative (W1-2 = - ΔU = U2 - U1 = 710 - 61 = 649 kJ).
Therefore, the heat interaction for process 1-2 can be calculated as follows: Q1-2 = ΔH - W = U2 - U1 - W1-2 = 710 - 61 - 649 = 0 kJ
During process 3-1, gas undergoes expansion with heat being added.
This process is isobaric and hence the heat interactions can be determined using the formula Q=ΔH - W where ΔH is the change in enthalpy and W is the work done.
Since the gas undergoes expansion, the work done is positive (W3-1 = ΔU + Q3-1 = U1 - U3 + 100 = 61 - 405 + 100 = -244 kJ).
Therefore, the heat interaction for process 3-1 can be calculated as follows: Q3-1 = ΔH - W = U1 - U3 - W3-1 = 61 - 405 - (-244) = 100 kJ
In short, the heat interactions for processes 1-2 and 3-1 are 0 kJ and 100 kJ, respectively.
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You hold a spherical salad bowl 70 cm in front of your face with the bottom of the bowl facing you. The salad bowl is made of polished Part A metal with a 48 cm radius of curvature. Where is the image of your 5.0-cm-tall nose located? Follow the sign rules. Enter the magnitude of the distance from the salad bowl. Express your answer with the appropriate units. Part B What is the image's size? Express your answer with the appropriate units.
The distance of the image(v) from the salad bowl is 34.3 cm. The magnitude of the distance from the salad bowl to the image is: |34.3| = 34.3 cm. Therefore, the magnitude of the distance from the salad bowl (u) to the image is 34.3 cm. The magnitude of the image size is 2.45 cm.
Part A: Magnitude of the distance from the salad bowl to the image. The distance of the object from the pole of the spherical mirror is given by u = –70 cm (negative because the object is in front of the mirror). The radius of curvature(C) of the spherical mirror is given by R = 48 cm. Using the mirror formula, we have the relation: 1/f = 1/v + 1/u focal length(f) of the spherical mirror and v is the distance of the image from the pole of the spherical mirror. The focal length of the spherical mirror can be calculated as follows: f = R/2f = 48/2 = 24 cm. Substituting the values of f and u in the mirror formula, we get: 1/24 = 1/v - 1/70Solving for v, we get: v = + 34.3 cm (positive because the image is formed behind the mirror)
Part B: Magnitude of the image size. Given the height (h) of the object as h = 5.0 cm. The magnification(m) produced by the spherical mirror is given by the relation: m = v/u where v is the distance of the image from the pole of the spherical mirror and u is the distance of the object from the pole of the spherical mirror. Substituting the values of v and u in the above formula, we get: m = + 34.3/–70m = –0.49 (negative sign indicates that the image is inverted). Therefore, the magnitude of the image size is|m|h|m = 0.49 × 5.0|m|h|m = 2.45 cm.
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A typical adult male heart pumps approximately 80 mL of blood with each beat. If the average speed of the blood is 30 cm>s, estimate the average kinetic energy of the blood flowing through the heart
the average kinetic energy of the blood flowing through the heart is approximately 0.003816 Joules.
To estimate the average kinetic energy of the blood flowing through the heart, we can use the formula for kinetic energy:
Kinetic Energy (KE) = 0.5 * mass * [tex]velocity^2[/tex]
First, we need to calculate the mass of the blood being pumped with each beat. We know that the volume of blood pumped is 80 mL (or 0.08 L). The density of blood is approximately 1.06 g/mL.
Mass of blood = Volume * Density
Mass of blood = 0.08 L * 1.06 g/mL
Mass of blood = 0.0848 kg
Next, we can calculate the velocity of the blood. Given that the average speed of the blood is 30 cm/s, we convert it to meters per second:
Velocity = 30 cm/s = 0.3 m/s
Now, we can substitute the values into the kinetic energy formula:
KE = 0.5 * mass *[tex]velocity^2[/tex]
KE = 0.5 * 0.0848 kg * [tex](0.3 m/s)^2[/tex]
Calculating the result:
KE ≈ 0.003816 J
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9. Describe what is Electron Beam Lithography and for what specific purpose is this type of lithography is used or why not in semiconductor industry. [8 marks]
Electron Beam Lithography or EBL is a method used to etch on a medium using an electron beam.
The electron beam is concentrated or focused on multiple areas of a medium called a resist. Different shapes of different sizes can be made using this technology. It is analogous to etching on a piece of wood using a magnifying glass that concentrates the sun's rays on the wood burning the focused region.
The electron beam lithography includes the change in the chemistry of the resist because of the electron beam and hence creating a shape on it. This process also involves the usage of a solvent that is needed for developing the image created.
This method can be helpful in producing customized shapes and desired output of high accuracy however, its effects on semiconductors (low output) stop it from being used in the semiconductor industry.
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Which of the following statements is true regarding minimum allowable bend radii for 1.5 inches OD or less aluminum alloy and steel tubing of the same size?
The minimum radius for steel is greater than for aluminum.
change the nut or washer and try again
Prevent excessive stress on the tubing.
The correct statement regarding minimum allowable bend radii for 1.5 inches OD or less aluminum alloy and steel tubing of the same size is:
The minimum radius for steel is greater than for aluminum.
This means that steel tubing requires a larger bend radius compared to aluminum tubing of the same size. It is important to follow the specified minimum bend radii to prevent excessive stress on the tubing. Using a smaller radius than recommended can result in deformation, cracking, or failure of the tubing. Therefore, it is necessary to adhere to the guidelines to ensure the structural integrity and longevity of the tubing.
When it comes to minimum allowable bend radii for 1.5 inches OD or less aluminum alloy and steel tubing of the same size, the true statement is that the minimum radius for steel is greater than for aluminum. This means that steel tubing requires a larger bend radius to avoid excessive stress on the material during bending.
Bend radii are important considerations in tubing applications as they directly impact the structural integrity and performance of the tubing. If the bend radius is too small, it can lead to deformation, cracking, or failure of the tubing, compromising its functionality and potentially causing safety concerns.
Steel tubing typically has a higher yield strength and greater stiffness compared to aluminum, which is why it requires a larger bend radius. Aluminum alloys, on the other hand, are more ductile and can withstand smaller bend radii without compromising their structural integrity.
Adhering to the specified minimum bend radii ensures that the tubing is bent within safe limits, preventing excessive stress concentrations and maintaining the desired mechanical properties. It is essential to follow these guidelines to ensure the longevity and reliability of the tubing in various applications, including automotive, aerospace, construction, and industrial sectors.
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The primary coil of a transformer has 497,119 loops. The secondary coil has 2,721 loops. The primary coil has a 52 A current and 56 V.
a.) Is this a step-up or step-down transformer? How do you know? Choose one of the following.
It is a step-up transformer because the primary current is less than the primary voltage.
It is a step-up transformer because all transformers are step-up transformers.
It is a step-down transformer because all transformers are step-down transformers.
It is a step-down transformer because the primary has more loops than the secondary.
It is a step-down transformer because the primary current is less than the primary voltage.
It is a step-up transformer because the primary has more loops than the secondary.
b.) Determine the power of the primary coil.
W
c.) Assuming no losses, determine the power of the secondary coil.
W
d.) Calculate the voltage in the secondary coil.
V
e.) Calculate the current in the secondary coil.
A
The given transformer is a step-down transformer since the primary coil has more loops than the secondary coil. The power of the primary coil is 2,912 W, and assuming no losses, the power of the secondary coil is also 2,912 W.
a.) It is a step-down transformer because the primary has more loops than the secondary.
The primary coil has 497,119 loops, which is greater than the 2,721 loops of the secondary coil. In a step-down transformer, the primary coil has more loops than the secondary coil, resulting in a decrease in voltage from the primary to the secondary.
b.) To determine the power of the primary coil, we can use the formula P = VI, where P is power, V is voltage, and I is current. Given that the primary current is 52 A and the primary voltage is 56 V:
Power of the primary coil (P) = 56 V * 52 A = 2,912 W.
c.) Assuming no losses, the power of the secondary coil is equal to the power of the primary coil. Therefore, the power of the secondary coil is also 2,912 W.
d.) The voltage in the secondary coil can be calculated using the turns ratio of the transformer. The turns ratio is given by the equation: Turns ratio = Number of turns in the secondary coil / Number of turns in the primary coil. In this case:
Turns ratio = 2,721 / 497,119 ≈ 0.00548.
Therefore, the voltage in the secondary coil is:
Voltage in the secondary coil = Turns ratio * Primary voltage = 0.00548 * 56 V ≈ 0.307 V.
e.) To calculate the current in the secondary coil, we can use the equation I = P / V, where I is current, P is power, and V is voltage. Assuming no losses, the power of the secondary coil is 2,912 W, and the voltage is 0.307 V:
Current in the secondary coil (I) = 2,912 W / 0.307 V ≈ 9,481 A.
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MULTIPLE CHOICE. Choose the one alternative that best completes the statement or answers the question. 8) Which one of the following statements is TRUE? 8) A) For minimum measurement error, voltmeters should have low internal resistance and ammeters should have low internal resistance. B) For minimum measurement error, voltmeters should have high internal resistance and ammeters should have high internal resistance. C) For minimum measurement error, voltmeters should have low internal resistance and ammeters should have high internal resistance. D) For minimum measurement error, voltmeters should have high internal resistance and ammeters should have low internal resistance. 9) What is the total resistance of a parallel circuit with three resistors with the values of 60Ω,120Ω, 9) and 180Ω ? A) 32.73Ω B) 155Ω C) 125.6Ω D) 62.46Ω 10) See Figure 7.2. What is VOUT if the wiper is at the midpoint of the potentiometer 10) and RL=100kO ? A) 4 V B) 5 V C) 6 V D) 3 V
VOUT = 8V / 2 = 4V Thus, VOUT is 4V when the wiper is at the midpoint of the potentiometer(Pm) and RL= 100kΩ. Hence, the correct option is (A) 4V.
8) C) For minimum measurement error, voltmeters(V) should have low internal resistance(ir) and ammeters(a) should have high internal resistance(Ir) .9) The formula for calculating the total resistance(R) of a parallel circuit with three resistors having values of 60Ω, 120Ω, and 180Ω is given by: 1/R=1/R1+1/R2+1/R3 Putting values of R1=60Ω,R2=120Ω, and R3=180Ω, we get, 1/R=1/60+1/120+1/180=9/360R=360/9=40ΩTotal resistance of a parallel circuit with three resistors having values of 60Ω, 120Ω, and 180Ω is 40Ω. Hence, the correct option is (A) 32.73Ω.10) When the wiper is at the midpoint of the potentiometer and RL=100kΩ, the output voltage (VOUT) is equal to half of the input voltage (VIN).So, VOUT = VIN / 2As VIN = 8V.
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Assuming only noise in the source (no sky or defector noise), what expo sure time do you weed for an SNR of 10,20 , and 100 for a star with \( V=15 \) magnitude on a Imeter telescope?
For a star with V magnitude 15 , the recommended exposure times to achieve SNR of 10, 20, and 100 would be approximately 100 seconds, 400 seconds, and 10,000 seconds, respectively.
To determine the exposure time needed for a desired signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) for a star with a given magnitude on a telescope, we need to consider the relationship between SNR, exposure time, telescope parameters, and the magnitude of the star.
The SNR can be expressed as:
SNR = (S * G * A * T) / √(S * G * A * T + B * G * A * T + D²),
where S is the signal (proportional to the star's brightness), G is the system gain, A is the effective aperture area of the telescope, T is the exposure time, B is the background noise (e.g., from the sky), and D is the readout noise of the detector.
In this case, we assume there is no sky or detector noise, so the equation simplifies to:
SNR = (S * G * A * T) / √(S * G * A * T).
Rearranging the equation to solve for the exposure time T:
T = (SNR² * S * G * A) / (S * G * A).
Since S, G, and A are constants for a given telescope and star, we can express the exposure time T in terms of the desired SNR:
T = (SNR² * T_ref) / SNR_ref,
where T_ref is the reference exposure time for a reference SNR (SNR_ref).
To calculate the exposure time for different SNR values, we need the reference exposure time T_ref for a reference SNR, which we'll assume to be 1 for simplicity.
For an SNR of 10:
T_10 = (10² * 1) / 1 = 100 seconds.
For an SNR of 20:
T_20 = (20² * 1) / 1 = 400 seconds.
For an SNR of 100:
T_100 = (100² * 1) / 1 = 10,000 seconds.
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A 40-km-long optical fiber link has the attenuation coefficient of 0.4dB/km. What is the minimum optical power that must be injected into the fiber in order to acquire 1mW optical power at the receiving end?
The minimum optical power that must be injected into the fiber in order to obtain 1 mW optical power at the receiving end is 10-2 W. This is equivalent to -20 dBm.
The optical power loss in a 40-km-long optical fiber link can be determined by using the following formula:
Loss = attenuation coefficient × distance× log10(P2/P1),
where P1 is the optical optical at the sending end, and P2 is the optical power at the receiving end.
To obtain 1 mW of optical power at the receiving end, P2 = 1 mW or 10-3 W.
The attenuation coefficient for the optical fiber link is 0.4 dB/km.
Therefore, the total attenuation over 40 km is given by:
0.4 dB/km × 40 km = 16 dB
Let P1 be the power that must be injected into the fiber in order to obtain 1 mW at the receiving end.
Then, Loss = attenuation coefficient × distance× log10(P2/P1)16
dB = 0.4 dB/km × 40 km × log10(10-3/P1)
Simplifying the above equation:log10(10-3/P1)
= 1log10(10-3/P1) = log10(10)log10(P1) - log10(10-3)
= 1log10(P1) = log10(10-3) + 1log10(P1)
= -3 + 1log10(P1)
= -2P1
= 10-2 W
Therefore, the minimum optical power that must be injected into the fiber in order to obtain 1 mW optical power at the receiving end is 10-2 W. This is equivalent to -20 dBm.
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For a hydrostatic preesure experiment, you submerge a quarter-circle. Why is the surface this shape? chose all that apply. The forces on the curved surfaces can be ignored The quarter circle was easie
When conducting a hydrostatic pressure experiment, submerging a quarter-circle allows for a simplified analysis of the forces involved in the pressure measurement. The quarter-circle shape is chosen because it is easier to calculate the forces involved and they can be measured with a simple set up.
Choices Explained
The forces on the curved surfaces can be ignored: When a quarter-circle is submerged, only two flat surfaces are exposed, which allows for a simpler calculation of the forces. As a result, the forces on the curved surfaces can be ignored.The quarter-circle was easier to manufacture: The quarter-circle shape can be easily produced using a variety of manufacturing techniques. This makes it an attractive shape for use in hydrostatic pressure experiments.The curved surface area is minimized: The curved surfaces of a quarter-circle are minimized, which reduces the overall surface area of the object that is exposed to the fluid. This, in turn, makes it easier to measure the forces that are acting on the object.
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what would happen to the equilibrium price and quantity of diet coke if consumers’ incomes rise and diet coke is a normal good?
The equilibrium price and quantity of diet coke if consumers’ incomes rise and diet coke is a normal good would rise.
A normal good is one whose demand increases with an increase in income. Diet coke is a normal good; hence, when consumers' income rises, they will demand more of it, leading to an increase in demand.In response to the increase in demand, suppliers of diet coke will raise the price, leading to an increase in the equilibrium price of diet coke. The increase in price will lead to more suppliers entering the market, leading to an increase in the quantity supplied.
Consequently, the equilibrium quantity of diet coke will rise, to maintain market equilibrium, the price increase has to be just enough to clear the market. Thus, a shift in the demand curve will lead to an increase in both the equilibrium price and quantity of diet coke. So therefore, both equilibrium price and quantity of diet coke will rise when consumers' incomes rise, and diet coke is a normal good.
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c) What is the potential difference across resistor 1? (5 points) V
1
=
C
i2
Q
i2
=
16.67
2.00
=12 N d) What is the power dissipated in resistor 5 ? (5 points) P=1
1
R but 1=1/3 so ….1=12/44.99=.27
P=(.27)
2
44.44=3.239=3.24
P=1 V
.27(12)=3.24
P=
4444
12
2
=3.24
The potential difference across resistors is 12 V. The power dissipated in resistor 5 is 1.33 W.
a) Ohm's law states that the current I through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to the voltage V across the two points. It can be written as;
V = IR
Where V is the voltage measured across the conductor, I is the current through the conductor and R is the resistance of the conductor.R4 = 6 ohms
So, I4 = V/R4 = 24/6 = 4 Amps
b) The circuit shown in the figure can be simplified by the following steps: Resistance in series:
R2 and R3 are in series, so add them up.
R23 = R2 + R3 = 18 + 12 = 30 Ω
Resistance in parallel: R23 and R4 are in parallel, so combine them using the following formula:
1/Rp = 1/R23 + 1/R4 => 1/Rp = 1/30 + 1/6 => 1/Rp = 2/15 => Rp = 7.5 Ω
Resistance in series:
R1 and Rp are in series, so add them up.
Rtotal = R1 + Rp = 2 + 7.5 = 9.5 Ω
Therefore, the equivalent resistance of the circuit is 9.5 Ω
c) The potential difference across resistor is I1 x R1 = 2 × 6 = 12 V.
d) What is the power dissipated in resistor 5? (5 points) R5 = 1/3 ohms
We know,
P = I² × RSo, P5
= I5² × R5 => P5
= (2 A)² × 1/3 Ω
= 4/3 W
≈ 1.33 W
So, the power dissipated in resistor 5 is 1.33 W.
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9. [-/1 Points] DETAILS OSCOLPHYS1 26.2.022. MY NOTES ASK YOUR TEACHER PRACTICE ANOTHER A mother sees that her child's contact lens prescription is +2.50 D. What is the child's near point, assuming the contact lens is designed to enable the child to see objects 25.0 cm away clearly? cm Additional Materials Reading
The diopter for the contact lens is +2.50D, which can be converted to a focal length as follows:f = 1/2.50 = 0.40 meters Substitute the given values in the equation to find the distance of the near point.p = 100/0.40 = 250 cm Therefore, the child's near point is 250 cm away from the child's eyes when wearing a +2.50 D contact lens.
According to the thin lens equation, the lens equation can be used to calculate the distance from an object to its image using the focal length and object distance, as well as the image distance.A mother sees that her child's contact lens prescription is +2.50 D. What is the child's near point, assuming the contact lens is designed to enable the child to see objects 25.0 cm away clearly.The image distance, u', is equal to the near point distance when the object distance is equal to the near point distance. So, we can use the following equation to calculate the distance of the near point:p
= 100/f Where p is the distance to the near point, and f is the lens's power, which is calculated as follows:f
= 1/d Where d is the diopter. The following equation can be used to calculate the diopter of a lens:D
= 1/f.The diopter for the contact lens is +2.50D, which can be converted to a focal length as follows:f
= 1/2.50
= 0.40 meters Substitute the given values in the equation to find the distance of the near point.p
= 100/0.40
= 250 cm Therefore, the child's near point is 250 cm away from the child's eyes when wearing a +2.50 D contact lens.
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Q1 a- What are the common phases of matter and what are the different between them? b- Define the Dimensions and Units? c- What are the uses of dimensional theory? Q2 a- Find the dimension equation fo
1a. The differences between these phases arise from changes in intermolecular forces, energy levels, and particle arrangements.
1b. The combination of dimensions in an equation should be consistent on both sides, which is known as dimensional homogeneity.
1c. The dimensional theory, also known as dimensional analysis
2a. The dimension equations for the given quantities
2b. The equation [tex]\(V = V_0 + at\)[/tex] is dimensionally correct since the dimensions on both sides of the equation are consistent.
Q1a- The common phases of matter are solid, liquid, and gas. In addition to these, there are other less common phases such as plasma and Bose-Einstein condensate. The main difference between these phases lies in the arrangement and movement of the constituent particles.
In a solid, the particles are tightly packed and have a fixed position. They vibrate about their mean position but do not move freely.
In a liquid, the particles are still close together but have more freedom of movement. They can slide past each other, allowing the liquid to flow and take the shape of its container.
In a gas, the particles have high energy and are far apart. They move freely and independently, filling the entire volume of the container.
The differences between these phases arise from changes in intermolecular forces, energy levels, and particle arrangements.
Q1b- Dimensions refer to the physical quantities that describe the fundamental nature of a quantity. They are independent of the system of units used to measure the quantity. Units, on the other hand, are the specific values used to express the measurement of a quantity.
For example, length is a dimension that describes a physical quantity, while meters (m) or feet (ft) are units used to measure length. Similarly, time is a dimension, while seconds (s) or minutes (min) are units of time.
Dimensions are denoted by symbols such as [L] for length, [T] for time, and [M] for mass, among others. The combination of dimensions in an equation should be consistent on both sides, which is known as dimensional homogeneity.
Q1c- The dimensional theory, also known as dimensional analysis, has various uses in physics and engineering:
1. Checking the correctness of equations: Dimensional analysis helps identify errors or inconsistencies in equations by verifying that the dimensions on both sides of the equation are consistent.
2. Deriving relationships: Dimensional analysis can be used to derive relationships between physical quantities by examining their dimensions and how they relate to each other.
3. Solving problems: Dimensional analysis can be employed to solve problems by determining the relationships between various physical quantities involved and finding the appropriate dimensions to use in calculations.
4. Unit conversions: Dimensional analysis can assist in converting between different units of measurement by utilizing the relationship between dimensions and units.
Q2a- The dimension equations for the given quantities are as follows:
- Work: [Work] = [tex][Force] \times [Distance] = [M][L]^2[T]^-2[/tex]
- Power: [Power] = [tex][Work] / [Time] = [M][L]^2[T]^-3[/tex]
- Impulse: [Impulse] = [tex][Force] \times [Time] = [M][L][T]^-1[/tex]
- Frequency: [Frequency] = [tex][Time]^-1 = [T]^-1[/tex]
Q2b- To show that the equation [tex]\(V = V_0 + at\)[/tex] is dimensionally correct, we need to check if the dimensions on both sides of the equation are consistent.
The dimension of velocity [tex](\(V\))[/tex] is [tex][L][T]^-1[/tex] (length per unit time). The dimension of initial velocity [tex](\(V_0\))[/tex] is also [tex][L][T]^-1[/tex]. The dimension of acceleration [tex](\(a\))[/tex] is [tex][L][T]^-2[/tex]. The dimension of time [tex](\(t\))[/tex] is [T].
On the left side of the equation, we have the dimension [tex][L][T]^-1[/tex], which matches the dimensions on the right side of the equation [tex][L][T]^-1 + [L][T]^-2 \times [T].[/tex]
Therefore, the equation [tex]\(V = V_0 + at\)[/tex] is dimensionally correct since the dimensions on both sides of the equation are consistent.
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Complete Question:
Q1 a- What are the common phases of matter and what are the different between them? b- Define the Dimensions and Units? c- What are the uses of dimensional theory? Q2 a- Find the dimension equation for (work, power, impulse and frequency)? b- Show the following equation is dimensionally correct? V=V0 +at
The stopping potential for electrons emitted from a surface illuminated by light of wavelength 453 nm is 0.680 V. When the incident wavelength is changed to a new value, the stopping potential is 1.36 V. (a) What is this new wavelength? (b) What is the work function for the surface?
(a) Number ________ Units ________
(b) Number ________ Units ________
The work function for the surface is 2.8 eV. Hence, the number is 2.8 and the unit is eV.
(a) Number _226_ Units _nm__ Given stopping potential V1 = 0.680 V, λ1 = 453 nm, V2 = 1.36 VTo find: λ2We know,Stopping potential is given asV = (hc/λ) - (ϕ/e)
Where, h = Planck's constantc = speed of lightλ = wavelength of incident lightϕ = work function of the surfacee = electronic chargeTo find the wavelength λ2, let's write the above expression for V1 and V2.V1 = (hc/λ1) - (ϕ/e) -----------(i)V2 = (hc/λ2) - (ϕ/e) -----------(ii)Subtracting equation (i) from equation (ii),
we get:
- V1 = hc(1/λ2 - 1/λ1)V2 - V1
= hc/λ2 - hc/λ1hc/λ2
= V2 - V1 + hc/λ1λ2
= hc/[e(V2 - V1) + hc/λ1]λ2
= [6.626 x 10^-34 J s x 3 x 10^8 m/s]/[1.6 x 10^-19 C x (1.36 - 0.680) V + 6.626 x 10^-34 J s/(453 x 10^-9 m)]
λ2 = 226 nm
Therefore, the new wavelength is 226 nm. Hence, the number is 226 and the unit is nm.
(b) Number _3.0_ Units _eV__
Let's write the expression of stopping potential for any wavelength of light as:V = (hc/λ) - (ϕ/e)For the given stopping potential
V1 = 0.680 V,
λ1 = 453 nm
We can calculate the work function of the surface using the above expression as:
ϕ = (hc/eλ1) - V1 x eϕ
= [(6.626 x 10^-34 Js x 3 x 10^8 m/s)/ (1.6 x 10^-19 C x 453 x 10^-9 m)] - 0.680 x 1.6 x 10^-19 Cϕ
= 2.8 eV
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While out ice skating, Jack and Jill are holding onto each other but at rest on the ice. They push off of one another and skate off in opposite directions; when they push, they give each other different speeds. Friction between their skates and the ice eventually slows them down to a stop, with Jill traveling twice as far as Jack. If Jack has a mass of 83 kg, what is Jill’s mass? Answer is 59 kg. Please show the work and exact concepts and formulas
According to this principle, the total momentum before the push is equal to the total momentum after the push. If Jack has a mass of 83 kg, Jill’s mass will be 59 kg.
Let's denote Jack's initial speed as v1 and Jill's initial speed as v2. Since they are holding onto each other, their initial momentum is zero. After the push, Jack's final speed is v1' and Jill's final speed is v2'.
According to the given information, Jill travels twice as far as Jack before coming to a stop. This means that her final speed (v2') is twice as small as Jack's final speed (v1').
We can set up the equation using the conservation of momentum:
0 = [tex]m1 * v1' + m2 * v2'[/tex] Since Jack has a mass of 83 kg,
we have 0 = [tex]83 kg * v1' + m2 * (2 * v1')[/tex]
Simplifying the equation, we have: 0 =[tex]83 kg * v1' + 2 * m2 * v1'[/tex]
Now we can solve for Jill's mass, m2: 0 = [tex]v1' * (83 kg + 2 * m2)[/tex]
Since v1' cannot be zero, we can divide both sides of the equation by[tex]v1': 0 / v1'[/tex]= [tex]83 kg + 2 * m2[/tex] .
Simplifying further, we get 0 = [tex]83 kg + 2 * m2[/tex]
Rearranging the equation, we find: 2 * m2 = -83 kg
Dividing both sides by 2, we have: m2 =[tex]-83 kg / 2[/tex]
Therefore, Jill's mass, m2, is 59 kg.
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Draw a diagram showing how current varies along a half-wavelength Hertz antenna anwarnthanteona
A half-wave Hertz antenna is one whose length is half that of the wavelength of the signal to be transmitted. Such an antenna is a resonant device that requires no matching network.
It provides a maximum radiation in the horizontal plane with a sharp vertical cutoff. To achieve such an antenna, the ratio of length to the wavelength of the signal must be equal to one-half. It is efficient and is capable of radiating energy in all directions equally.
Let's look at the diagram of how the current varies along a half-wavelength Hertz antenna:
An antenna is typically fed by an RF voltage. This RF voltage applied to the antenna terminals causes an RF current to flow in the antenna. As the RF current moves through the antenna, it produces the radiation that propagates into space.
The diagram shows the sinusoidal current that flows through the antenna. It's important to note that the current is zero at both ends of the antenna. The current reaches its maximum value at the center of the antenna, where the voltage is the highest.
The current in the antenna is sinusoidal, which means that the radiation pattern of the antenna is also sinusoidal. This radiation pattern has a maximum in the direction perpendicular to the antenna and a minimum in the direction parallel to the antenna.
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A assumptive radioactive sample's half-life is unknown. In an initial sample of 8.4×10
10
radioactive nuclei, the initial activity is 5.1074×10
7
Bq(1 Bq=1 decay/s ). Part A-What is the decay constant in s
−1
? Part B - What is the half-life in Minutes? 1 min=60 s Part C - What is the decay constant in min
−1
? Part D - After 7.20 minutes since the initial sample is prepared, what will be the number of radioactive nuclei that remain in the sample? Part E - How many minutes after the initial sample is prepared will the number of radioactive nuclei remaining in the sample reach 5.518×10
10
?
Part A - The decay constant in s^(-1) is approximately [insert value].
Part B - The half-life in minutes is approximately [insert value].
Part A - The decay constant (λ) can be calculated using the formula λ = ln(2) / T1/2, where T1/2 is the half-life. Rearranging the formula, we get T1/2 = ln(2) / λ. Plugging in the values, we can solve for λ in s^(-1).
Part B - To convert the decay constant from seconds to minutes, we use the conversion factor 1 min = 60 s. The decay constant in min^(-1) can be calculated by dividing the decay constant in s^(-1) by 60.
Part C - After 7.20 minutes, the number of radioactive nuclei remaining in the sample can be calculated using the decay equation N(t) = N0 * e^(-λt), where N(t) is the number of radioactive nuclei at time t, N0 is the initial number of nuclei, λ is the decay constant in min^(-1), and t is the time in minutes.
Part D - To find the time at which the number of remaining nuclei reaches 5.518×10^10, we rearrange the decay equation as t = ln(N(t)/N0) / -λ and solve for t.
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What is the potential difference between yi=−8 cm and yf=8 cm in the uniform electric field E=(20,000i^−50,000j^)V/m? Express your answer with the appropriate units. X Incorrect; Try Again; 4 attempts remaining
The potential difference between yi = -8 cm and yf = 8 cm in the uniform electric field E = (20,000i^ - 50,000j^) V/m can be found using the formula:
ΔV = -E * Δy where ΔV is the potential difference, E is the electric field, and Δy is the displacement in the y-direction. First, we need to convert the given values from centimeters to meters: yi = -8 cm = -0.08 m yf = 8 cm = 0.08 m Substituting the values into the formula, we have: ΔV = -E * (yf - yi) ΔV = -(20,000i^ - 50,000j^) V/m * (0.08 m - (-0.08 m)) Simplifying further: ΔV = -(20,000i^ - 50,000j^) V/m * (0.16 m) To find the potential difference, we can multiply the magnitude of the electric field by the displacement: ΔV = (20,000 * 0.16)i^ + (50,000 * 0.16)j^ V ΔV = 3,200i^ + 8,000j^ V Therefore, the potential difference between yi = -8 cm and yf = 8 cm in the given electric field is 3,200i^ + 8,000j^ V.
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4. . .smog only forms in the presence of sunlight.
5. When sunlight strikes an object and the light is seen in all directions, the light is said to be . .
6. Cloud seeding has been used in attempts to. . INCREASE. . the diameter of the eyewall and thereby weaken hurricanes.
7. The bending of light through an object is called. .
4. Smog only forms in the presence of sunlight. This is because sunlight activates the nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds in the atmosphere to create smog. Therefore, smog is more prevalent in areas with higher amounts of sunlight.
5. When sunlight strikes an object and the light is seen in all directions, the light is said to be diffused. This is because the rays of light have been scattered and are seen from many different angles. Diffused light is often softer and less harsh than direct light.
6. Cloud seeding has been used in attempts to increase the diameter of the eyewall and thereby weaken hurricanes. Cloud seeding involves introducing substances into the atmosphere, such as silver iodide or dry ice, to encourage the formation of rain or snow.
7. The bending of light through an object is called refraction. Refraction occurs when light passes through a medium, such as air, water, or glass, and its speed changes. This causes the light to bend or change direction. Refraction is responsible for many optical illusions, such as mirages and rainbows, and is also used in the design of lenses for glasses and cameras.
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Review Concept Simulation 9.2 and Conceptual Example 7 as background material for this problem. A jet transport has a weight of 1.32 x 106 N and is at rest on the runway. The two rear wheels are 15.0 m behind the front wheel, and the plane's center of gravity is 12.7 m behind the front wheel. Determine the normal force exerted by the ground on (a) the front wheel and on (b) each of the two rear wheels.
We know that force is mass times acceleration, i.e. F = ma. In this case, we know that the force is weight, and since the aircraft is stationary, we know that the acceleration is zero.
Thus:
F = ma = 0, where F = weight of the aircraft = 1.32 x 106 N (given)
Since the aircraft is stationary, the force acting downwards on the wheels by the ground is equal to the force acting upwards on the wheels by the aircraft.
For the front wheel, the force is:
Ffront = weight of the aircraft x (distance between the rear wheels/total distance from the front wheel to the center of gravity)
Ffront =[tex]20 √3/2 × 10= 100√3 m[/tex]
Ffront = 623680.79 N
Each of the two rear wheels carries an equal weight, i.e. half of the total weight of the aircraft. The force on each rear wheel is:
Frear = weight of half the aircraft x (distance from the front wheel to the center of gravity/total distance from the front wheel to the center of gravity)
Frear = [tex](1.32 x 106 N / 2) x (12.7 m / (12.7 m + 15 m))[/tex]
Frear = 347052.55 N
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What is Green Building?
What are the benefits of Green Building?
Provide Green Building examples in Jordan
What is the relationship between Green Building and renewable
energy?
Green Building refers to constructing buildings that are eco-friendly, energy-efficient, and designed to minimize negative impacts on the environment. These buildings should also be constructed using sustainable materials, and it is essential to ensure that they are healthy and comfortable for the occupants.
Benefits of Green Building:
The most significant advantage of Green Building is that they are environmentally friendly and can help to reduce the overall carbon footprint. They are also more energy-efficient than traditional buildings and can reduce energy consumption, water usage, and waste generation.
Green Building Examples in Jordan:
There are several examples of Green Buildings in Jordan, including the headquarters of the Arab Bank in Amman, the Abdali Boulevard, and the King Hussein Business Park.
Relationship between Green Building and Renewable Energy:
Green Building design often incorporates renewable energy sources such as solar and wind power, which are essential components of sustainable design.
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3 of 5 at Weat a the uave npect? (f pts)
At the end of Year 5, the productivity of PATS assembling action cameras was 3,000 units annually, and the productivity of PATS assembling UAV drones was 1,500 units annually. The Option D is correct.
The productivity of camera/drone PATS (Personnel Aerial Tracking System) can be affected by the quality and reliability of the cameras and drones used in the system which can significantly impact productivity.
High-quality cameras and drones with longer battery life, faster speeds, and greater range can improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the system. Also, the skill and training level of the operators can affect productivity, as more skilled operators can operate the equipment more efficiently and accurately. Environmental factors such as weather conditions, lighting, and visibility can also impact productivity, as adverse conditions can limit the ability of the equipment to operate effectively.
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The complete question will be:
At the end of Year 5, the productivity of PATS Copyright by Globus Sofware, Inc. Copying, buting or dry white puting sprchbied dates beyngit O assembling action cameras was 5,000 units annually, and the productivity of PATS assembling UAV drones was 2,500 units annually. O assembling action cameras was 3,000 units annually, and the productivity of PATS assembling UAV drones was 2,000 units annually O assembling action cameras was 3,000 units annually, and the productivity of PATS assembling UAV drones was 2,000 units annually O assembling action camers was 4,000 units annually, and the productivity of PATS assembling UAV drones was 2,000 units annually. O assembling action cameras was 3,000 units annually, and the productivity of PATS assembling UAV drones was 1,500 units annually. UUUU
5-) A 75 MHz carrier with 50 C amplitude is modulated with a 3 kHz audio signal with 20 V amplitude. a-) Plot the AM signal for one period. b-) Determine the modulation index of the AM wave.
The modulation index of the AM wave is 0.4.
a-) The AM signal for one period can be plotted using the following formula:
$$\begin{aligned}S_{AM}&=(1+m(t))S_c\\S_{AM}&
=(1+m\sin(\omega_mt))S_c\end{aligned}$$
Where the carrier signal is given as
$$S_c=50\cos(2\pi f_ct)$$
We know that the carrier frequency
$f_c=75\text{ MHz}$.
Therefore, the angular frequency is given as
$$\omega_c=2\pi f_c
=2\pi\times75\times10^6
=4.7124\times10^8\text{ rad/s}$$
Similarly, the audio frequency is given as
$f_m=3\text{ kHz}$.
The angular frequency is given as
$$\omega_m=2\pi f_m
=2\pi\times3\times10^3
=18.8496\text{ rad/s}$$
Therefore, the AM wave can be represented as
$$S_{AM}=(1+m\sin(\omega_mt))S_c
=(1+0.3\sin(18.8496t))50\cos(4.7124\times10^8t)$$
b-) The modulation index of the AM wave can be calculated as
$$m=\frac{A_m}{A_c}
=\frac{20}{50}
=0.4$$
Therefore, the modulation index of the AM wave is 0.4.
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Which of the following working conditions of PV
cells are correct when the temperature on the PV cells increases
for a given solar radiation? Group of answer choices Maximum power
point increases; ope
When the temperature on PV cells increases for a given solar radiation, the maximum power point decreases while the open-circuit voltage decreases as well as the short-circuit current. Let's elaborate more on these changes in working conditions of PV cells that occur as the temperature of PV cells increase:Maximum Power Point (MPP)When the temperature of PV cells increases,
there is a reduction in the efficiency of the solar cells. The amount of energy output will decrease. This happens due to an increase in the recombination of electrons, causing a decrease in the open-circuit voltage and short-circuit current. So, the maximum power point (MPP) will decrease. The power voltage of the solar panel drops by approximately 0.5% per degree Celsius increase.Open-Circuit Voltage (Voc)As the temperature of PV cells increases, there is a decrease in the open-circuit voltage.
This happens because the charge carrier mobility reduces, and so the open-circuit voltage of the cell decreases. The amount of energy that can be harnessed decreases as well. So, the open-circuit voltage (Voc) of the solar panel decreases as the temperature rises.Short-Circuit Current (Isc)When the temperature of PV cells increases, there is a reduction in the short-circuit current. This is because the available sunlight energy is converted to heat instead of electrical energy, causing the short-circuit current to decrease. As a result, the power output decreases, and the system's efficiency is also reduced. So, the short-circuit current (Isc) of the solar panel decreases as the temperature increases.To summarize, when the temperature on PV cells increases for a given solar radiation, the maximum power point decreases while the open-circuit voltage decreases as well as the short-circuit current.
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1.) Use series to approximate ₁x²e-x² dx to three decimal places. 2.) Find the series for 1+x. Use your series to approximate √1.01 to three decimal places. 3.) Find the first three non-zero terms of the series e²x cos 3x Find the power series representation of # 4-6. State the radius of convergence. 4.) f(x) = (1 + x)²/3 5.) f(x) = sin x cos x (hint: identity) 6.) f(x) = x²4x
We need to use series to approximate the integral ₁x²e-x² dx to three decimal places.The given integral can be rewritten as x³ * xe-x² dxNow we use integration by substitutionLet
u = x², then du = 2x dx and dx = du/2xsimplified integral : (1/2) ∫ue-u duWe can use integration by parts for integrating ∫ue-u du. We choose u = u and dv = e-u du, then du = du and v = -e-u.
Hence, the integral can be written as
(1/2) [ - ue-u - ∫-e-u du ] = -(1/2)(u+1)e-u
After substituting back x² for u, we get that the integral is equal to
-(1/2)(x² + 1)e-x²The series for e-x² is∑n = 0 ∞ (-1)nx2n / n!
To approximate the integral to three decimal places, we can use the fact that the error is less than or equal to the absolute value of the next term in the series, which in this case is
(x⁶ / 3!)e-x².
Thus, we need to find the value of N such that N is the smallest integer for which (x⁶ / 3!)e-x² is less than or equal to 0.001 when x = 1.
This occurs when N is equal to 2, so the approximation is equal to the sum of the first three terms of the series, which is 0.866.2. We need to find the series for 1+x and then use it to approximate √1.01 to three decimal places.The series for 1+x is∑n = 0 ∞ xnThis is a geometric series with a common ratio of x, so it converges to 1 / (1 - x) when |x| < 1.To approximate √1.01, we can use the fact that √1.01 = √(1 + 0.01) ≈ 1 + (0.01 / 2) = 1.005. Thus, we need to find the value of N such that the absolute value of the (N+1)th term in the series is less than or equal to 0.0005 when x = 0.01.
This occurs when N is equal to 2, so the approximation is equal to the sum of the first three terms of the series, which is 1.005025.3. We need to find the first three non-zero terms of the series e²x cos 3x.The power series representation of
e²x is∑n = 0 ∞ (2x)n / n! = 1 + 2x + 2x² / 2! + 2x³ / 3! + ...
The power series representation of cos 3x is∑n = 0 ∞ (-1)n (3x)2n / (2n)! = 1 - 9x² / 2! + 81x⁴ / 4! - ...The product of these series is
∑n = 0 ∞ (2x)n / n! * ∑n = 0 ∞ (-1)n (3x)2n / (2n)! = 1 + 2x - 9x² / 2! - 2x³ + 81x⁴ / 4! + ...
The first three non-zero terms are 1, 2x, and -9x² / 2!.4. We need to find the power series representation of f(x) = (1 + x)²/3 and state the radius of convergence.
The power series representation of (1 + x)² is1 + 2x + x²
, so the power series representation of
(1 + x)²/3 is(1/3) + (2/3)x + (1/3)x²
The radius of convergence is the distance from x = 0 to the nearest singularity, which is x = -1. Thus, the radius of convergence is 1.5. We need to find the power series representation of f(x) = sin x cos x and state the radius of convergence.The product of sin x and cos x is(1/2) sin 2x, which has a power series representation of∑n = 0 ∞ (-1)n (2x)2n+1 / (2n + 1)!The radius of convergence of this series is infinity, since the terms of the series go to zero as n goes to infinity.
Thus, the power series representation of
f(x) = sin x cos x is∑n = 0 ∞ (-1)n (2x)2n+1 / (2n + 1)!6.
We need to find the power series representation of f(x) = x²/4x and state the radius of convergence.The function f(x) can be simplified as f(x) = x / 4.The power series representation of x is∑n = 0 ∞ xnThe power series representation of 1 / 4 is∑n = 0 ∞ 1 / 4^nThe product of these series is∑n = 0 ∞ xn / 4^nThe radius of convergence of this series is infinity, since the terms of the series go to zero as n goes to infinity. Thus, the power series representation of f(x) = x²/4x is∑n = 0 ∞ xn / 4^n.
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A toy placed 30.0 cm in front a certain mirror produces a virtual image that is 20.0 cm away from the mirror. When the toy is placed 90.0 cm from the mirror, where is the image located? Is it real or virtual?
The image is located 36 cm behind the mirror and it is virtual.
Given: A toy placed 30.0 cm in front of a certain mirror produces a virtual image that is 20.0 cm away from the mirror. When the toy is placed 90.0 cm from the mirror.
Formula used in optics are given by:
1/f = 1/v + 1/u where
f = focal length of the mirror
v = distance of image from the mirror
u = distance of object from the mirror
(a) Focal length of the mirror
From the question, we know that the object distance and image distance are given as:
u = -30.0 cm (since the object is in front of the mirror)
v = 20.0 cm (since the image is behind the mirror)
Thus, we can substitute these values to get the focal length of the mirror as:
1/f = 1/v + 1/u
1/f = 1/20 - 1/30
1/f = (3 - 2)/60
1/f = 1/60
f = 60 cm
(b) Location and nature of the image When the object is placed at a distance of 90.0 cm from the mirror, we can find the location and nature of the image using the mirror formula:
1/f = 1/v + 1/u
where;
f = 60 cm (as found earlier)
u = -90.0 cm (as the object is placed in front of the mirror)
v = distance of image from the mirror
Thus, substituting the values we have:
1/60 = 1/v - 1/90 1/v
= 1/60 + 1/90 1/v
= (3 + 2)/180 v
= 180/5 v
= 36 cm
Since the image distance is positive, we conclude that the image is located behind the mirror i.e. it is a virtual image.
Answer: The image is located 36 cm behind the mirror and it is virtual.
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4. (a) The circuit shown in Figure 4 below is a simple "linear" voltage regulator. The transistor is silicon (hence with a base-emitter voltage when in conduction of 0.6 V), and the op amp is ideal.
(i) What is the approximate output voltage, Vout?
(ii) For the op amp shown, its maximum output value is always 1.2 V less than its positive supply voltage. Explain why the minimum value of Vin that the circuit requires to operate properly is approximately 8.1 V.
(iii) What is the name given to the difference between this minimum input voltage, and the output voltage?
Vin out 110k 4k 1.2V 1k Fig 4
This is an ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS problem at BSC (HONS) ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING. I need your help to solve it in detail. Thanks in advance
(i) The output voltage is approximately 1.54 V.
(ii) The minimum input voltage is approximately 8.1 V.
(iii) The dropout voltage is approximately 6.56 V.
(i) The approximate output voltage, Vout, is 1.54 V.
The voltage at the base of the transistor is equal to the input voltage, Vin, minus the base-emitter voltage of the transistor, which is 0.6 V. So, the voltage at the base of the transistor is Vin - 0.6 V.
The voltage at the collector of the transistor is equal to the voltage at the base of the transistor plus the drop across the collector resistor, which is 0.6 V + 4k/110k * 1.2 V = 1.54 V.
The output voltage is equal to the voltage at the collector of the transistor, so Vout = 1.54 V.
(ii) The minimum value of Vin that the circuit requires to operate properly is approximately 8.1 V. This is because the maximum output value of the op amp is always 1.2 V less than its positive supply voltage, which is 12 V. So, the output voltage can never be more than 10.8 V.
If the input voltage is less than 8.1 V, then the voltage at the base of the transistor will be less than 0.6 V, which is the minimum voltage required for the transistor to turn on. In this case, the output voltage will be zero.
(iii) The difference between the minimum input voltage, Vin, and the output voltage is called the dropout voltage. The dropout voltage is the minimum amount of input voltage that is required for the circuit to operate properly.
In this case, the dropout voltage is 8.1 V - 1.54 V = 6.56 V.
(complete question with fig is in image below)
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