Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disorder that affects the central nervous system (CNS). In MS, the myelin sheath, which is the protective covering surrounding the nerve cells, is destroyed.
This disrupts the ability of nerve cells to communicate with each other, resulting in the disruption of nerve impulses. The areas of the neuron that are especially affected are the myelin sheath, the axons, and the dendrites. The myelin sheath is the most affected, as it is the most vulnerable to attack by the immune system. The axons, which transmit electrical signals, are also damaged, resulting in decreased nerve impulse conduction. Finally, the dendrites, which receive signals from other neurons, may also be affected, leading to decreased communication with other neurons. Thus, MS can affect all parts of the neuron, resulting in the slowing down of nerve impulses.
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how is atp used in the digestion, respiration, and excretion processes in all cells?
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), an energy-rich compound that absorbs the chemical energy obtained from the breakdown of food molecules and releases it to fuel other cellular processes, is one goal of the degradation of foodstuffs.
ATP is created when the energy contained in chemical bonds is converted from one form to another. The chemical energy contained in food molecules is captured and then released to power the work being done by the cell. Consider ATP as the universal currency of your body's cells. Your body breaks down the food you eat into tiny macronutrient components. Your body converts all the carbs in your food to glucose, a simple sugar. A series of chemical processes known as cellular respiration convert glucose into ATP, which can then be used as energy to fuel many reactions throughout the body.
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how would exposure to a sarin-like poison affect the amounts of na going into the muscle cell? explain why
Exposure to a sarin-like poison could significantly affect the amounts of Na+ ions going into the muscle cell by causing overstimulation of ACh receptors which leads to depolarization and ultimately, paralysis.
Acetylcholinesterase, an enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine (ACh) in the synapses of the nervous system, is inhibited by sarin, a highly toxic nerve agent.
This leads to an accumulation of ACh, causing overstimulation of the nervous system, and ultimately leading to paralysis and death.
The effect of sarin on Na+ ions is through its impact on ACh receptors. ACh binds to nicotinic receptors on the surface of muscle cells, causing a conformational change that leads to the opening of ion channels, including Na+ channels.
Na+ ions then flow into the muscle cell, initiating a cascade of events that ultimately leads to muscle contraction.
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What is thermoregulation body temperature?
you add c18o2 to your growth chamber where you are growing a c3 plant under illumination. in which compound do you expect to initially find the 18o?
The first stable organic molecule produced during photosynthesis, which is PGA in the case of C3 plants, is expected to contain the 18O initially, and this label will be passed on to other organic compounds produced from PGA through subsequent metabolic pathways.
When adding C18O2 to a growth chamber where a C3 plant is growing under illumination, the 18O is expected to initially be found in the carboxyl group of the first stable organic molecule produced during photosynthesis. In C3 plants, the initial CO2 fixation occurs in the chloroplasts of mesophyll cells, where CO2 is converted into a 3-carbon compound, phosphoglycerate (PGA), through a series of enzymatic reactions known as the Calvin cycle.
During the Calvin cycle, the initial reaction involves the carboxylation of ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) by the enzyme rubisco, which results in the formation of two molecules of PGA. If C18O2 is added to the growth chamber, rubisco will use this molecule instead of the normal C16O2, resulting in the production of a molecule containing a heavy isotope of oxygen (18O) in the carboxyl group.
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Is it normal to have a bruise after getting blood drawn?
After had your blood drawn, some bruising is typical. When ever a blood vessel gets injured, blood leaks into the area under your skin, resulting in a bruise.
Is bruising after donating typical?On rare occasions, arm bruises may appear. Some individuals may find the bruise alarming since it may appear spectacular, especially if it develops outside of the donor location. Bruises often don't hurt and will go away over time. It's common that they spread out just before going away.
After my blood test, should I be concerned about bruising?Bruising following a venipuncture is commonplace and usually not a reason for alarm. However, if a someone does feel really uncomfortable, they should contact a doctor.
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Which correctly lists the changes to eukaryotic pre-mrna to form mrna
Exons removed, poly T tail inserted, and C)cap added. This is how eukaryotic pre-mRNA is altered to create mRNA.
Pre-mRNA is created in the nucleus by transcription of a section of a linear chromosome's DNA. To become a mature mRNA, this transcript must go through treatment (splicing and addition of 5' cap and poly-A tail) when it is still within the nucleus. RNA polymerase II (Pol II) in eukaryotes transcribes mRNA precursors (pre-mRNAs) from the genome. Mature mRNAs are produced after significant cotranscriptional processing. Pre-mRNA maturation typically involves splicing, 5′-end capping, 3′-end cleavage, and polyadenylation. Pre-mRNA processing is made up of three main processes: 3′-end polyadenylation, splicing, and 5′-end capping. Which correctly lists the changes to eukaryotic pre-mRNA to form mRNA? A. cap added, introns excised, and poly T tail added, B. cap added, exons excised, and poly T tail added, C. cap added, introns excised, and poly A tail added, D. cap added, exons excised, and poly A tail added.
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the granulosa cells of developing follicles secrete is called ___
A follicular cell, often referred to as a granulosa cell, is a somatic cell of the sex cord that is closely associated to the female gamete, also known as an oocyte or egg, that is developing in the mammalian ovary.
What granulosa cells are related to follicles secrete?The corpus luteum is formed from the cells in the ovarian follicle that are left behind after ovulation. They now create large amounts of progesterone in addition to estrogen to get the uterine lining ready for implantation.
The ovulatory follicle's granulosa cells, which produce estrogen in response to FSH, are the primary and essentially sole source of estradiol in the follicular phase of the ovarian cycle.
Therefore, The thecal cells secrete androgen and the granulosa cells secrete estradiol.
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Conclusion of diversity in living organisms in 200 words
The nature of the world is diverse. Different kinds of things exist, which leads to variety. The occurrence of different kinds of plants and animals on the surface of the world is referred to as biodiversity.
Genetics, species, and the ecology or habitat all contribute to variety. Because it ensures the existence and sustainability of all life on earth, biodiversity is a crucial component of the globe. Different forms of biodiversity exist as a result of the diversity of living organisms, based on a few key factors. The genetic elements that all living things share are what give rise to genetic variety.
Similar-gene species diverge and develop differently, resulting in biodiversity. When an environment has a variety of various types of living creatures, species diversity occurs. The interaction of living creatures that share common energy sources in an environment, which adds to biodiversity, creates ecological variety. The importance of biodiversity in nature is influenced by both the presence of living organisms in an environment and the health of the ecosystem. Living things can obtain food and other necessary resources to continue their existence through biodiversity. Because of biodiversity, climatic and environmental changes are controlled. Because biodiversity entails the coexistence of several animals and human groups in one area, it enriches culture.
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What does this symbol represent in terms of life cycles, and why is it drawn this way?a. Sporophyte: It is a simple way of drawing the many spores within the sporophyteb. Multicellular organism: It is a simple way of drawing many cells to represent a multicellular life stage.c. Spore: It is drawn this way to distinguish it from gametes, which are also single-celled. d. Cell with cytoskeleton: It is drawn to show microtubules.e.Nucleus with chromosomes: It is drawn to show two sets of chromosomes, making it diploid.
Option a is Correct. Sporophyte: This is a straightforward illustration of the numerous spores found within the sporophyte; what does it symbolize in terms of life cycles, and why is it depicted in this manner?
What stage of life does a sporophyte reach?A diploid (containing two sets of chromosomes) plant body develops and finally generates spores through meiosis during the sporophyte phase. Gametophytes, which are haploid (containing a single pair of chromosomes) gamete-producing organisms, are created when these spores divide through mitosis.
The multicellular haploid gametophyte, which is named after the Greek word phyton, or "plant," develops gametes. A multicellular, diploid sporophyte formed after fertilization goes on to create haploid spores through meiosis. A haplodiplontic life cycle is the name given to this kind of life cycle.
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syphillis is a sexually transmitted infection caused by the bacterium treponema pallidum pallidum. treponema pallidum pallidum requires organic compounds as both an energy source and a carbon source. which feeding strategy most accurately describes that of this bacterium?
The feeding strategy that most accurately describes Treponema pallidum pallidum is Chemoorganoheterotroph. Chemoorganoheterotrophs are organisms that obtain both energy and carbon from organic compounds, such as sugars, amino acids, and fatty acids.
Treponema pallidum pallidum is unable to synthesize its own organic compounds and must acquire them from its environment, which it uses as an energy and carbon source. The bacterium is not able to use inorganic compounds as a source of energy or carbon, so it cannot be described as a chemolithotroph or chemolithoautotroph. It is also not an autotroph, which uses carbon dioxide as a source of carbon to synthesize its own organic compounds. Chemoheterotrophs are organisms that rely on organic molecules, such as sugars, amino acids, and fatty acids, for both energy and carbon. They break down these molecules through cellular respiration, using the energy released to drive metabolic processes and synthesize essential molecules.
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The given question is incomplete. The complete question is as follows:
Syphillis is a sexually transmitted infection caused by the bacterium Treponema pallidum pallidum. Treponema pallidum pallidum requires organic compounds as both an energy source and a carbon source. Which feeding strategy most accurately describes that of this bacterium?
A. Chemolithotrophicheterotroph
B. Chemoorganoheterotroph
C. Chemolithoautotroph
D. Chemoorganoautotroph
A lab worker examines a slide of human chromosomes. After sorting and counting the chromosomes, she determines that they come from a female. How did she make this conclusion?
Answer:
Explanation:
A female human has 46 chromosomes, which are arranged in 23 pairs. One chromosome of each pair is inherited from the mother and the other is inherited from the father.
In a female, one of the chromosomes in each pair is an X chromosome, while the other chromosome can be either an X chromosome or a Y chromosome. This results in a total of two X chromosomes in a female and one X and one Y chromosome in a male.
Therefore, if the lab worker counted 23 pairs of chromosomes and observed two X chromosomes, she could conclude that the chromosomes come from a female.
What is the name for a burst of activity on an EEG in the early stages of sleep?
A. gamma waves
B. sleep spindles
C. REM
D. lingering activation
Sleep spindles is the name for a burst of activity on an EEG in the early stages of sleep.
Such a system includes sleep spindles. The EEG shows bursts of coherent brain activity known as sleep spindles, which are particularly noticeable during stage 2 sleep. They are made up of quick 11–16 Hz waves that last 0.5–1.5 seconds. In animals, the onset of cortical sleep spindles typically happens with high-frequency (about 200 Hz) ripples that travel on sharp hippocampus waves during NREM sleep (Siapas and Wilson, 1998). As memories are solidified during sleep, the co-occurrence of hippocampal sharp waves and cortical spindles may be the mechanism behind the integration of information between the hippocampus and neocortex (Buzsáki, 1996).
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______ are essential chemical substances that must be consumed for normal cellular metabolism and growth.
Chemicals called nutrients are necessary for regular cellular growth and metabolism and must be ingested.
Nutrients are substances that are essential for the growth, maintenance, and repair of the body. They provide energy, help maintain the structure of cells and tissues, and support various physiological functions. There are six main types of nutrients that the body requires:
Carbohydrates - a source of energy that can be converted to glucose by the body for immediate use or stored in the liver and muscles for future use.
Proteins - essential for building and repairing tissues, making enzymes and hormones, and maintaining the immune system.
Fats - a concentrated source of energy that helps the body absorb certain vitamins and minerals.
Vitamins - organic compounds that the body needs in small amounts for various physiological functions such as immunity, metabolism.
Minerals - inorganic substances that the body needs in small amounts for various functions.
Water - essential for life, it helps regulate body temperature, transports nutrients and waste products, and lubricates joints and tissues.
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To which substance does ferredoxin transfer an electron? a. photosystem i b. photosystem iic. nadp d. nadph
Ferredoxin transfer an electron to nadp. Through Fe-S clusters whose iron cations swing between +2 (ferrous) oxidation states and +3, the iron-sulfur protein ferredoxin facilitates electron transport in a vast variety of redox processes in cellular metabolism (ferric).
From the anaerobic bacterium Clostridium pasteurianum, the first protein of this kind was identified in 1962. The cyclic and noncyclic photophosphorylation processes of photosynthesis are mediated by a ferredoxin peculiar to chloroplasts. Ferredoxin-NADP + reductase (EC 1.18.1.2) lowers NADP + with FAD and a flavin group as cofactors, and ferredoxin serves as the final electron acceptor in non-cyclic photophosphorylation:
[tex][Fe(2+)Fe(3+)S_{2} (-2)] + NADP(+) + H^{+} ==== > 2 ferredoxin [Fe_{3} (+2)S_{2}(-2)] + NADPH[/tex]
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Sugars created during photosynthesis are distributed through the plant
inside of which of the following types of tissue?
Sugars created during photosynthesis are distributed through the plant inside of the phloem tissue.
What is photosynthesis?Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria convert light energy from the sun into chemical energy in the form of glucose and oxygen. During photosynthesis, carbon dioxide and water are transformed into glucose and oxygen, with the help of chlorophyll and other pigments found in specialized organelles called chloroplasts.
Phloem tissue is a specialized plant tissue that is responsible for transporting food and other important molecules, such as hormones and signaling molecules, throughout the plant. The phloem is composed of living cells, including sieve tube elements and companion cells, which work together to move nutrients from where they are produced (usually in leaves) to where they are needed (such as growing regions or storage tissues).
This process is known as translocation and is essential for plant growth and development.
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what enzyme that breaks down starches into simple carbohydrates?
Amylase is the enzyme that breaks down starches into simple carbohydrates.
MetabolismMaltose, which is produced by the breakdown of starch into smaller molecules by amylases, is then split into two glucose molecules by the enzyme maltase.Any enzyme from the class of amylases that catalyzes the hydrolysis (splitting) of starch into smaller carbohydrate molecules like maltose (a molecule composed of two glucose molecules).The amylase enzyme, which is present in visit your saliva and small intestine, converts the starches in starchy meals that you eat into sugars like glucose, maltotriose, and maltose. Other enzymes, including maltase, lactase, sucrase, and isomaltase, further break down these compound sugars into simple sugars.For more information on amylase kindly visit to
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If the nitrogen-fixing bacteria were destroyed by a virus, the MOST likely result would be
answer choices
a decrease in nitrogen gas in the atmosphere.
an increase in nitrates from animal wastes
an increase in nitrates available for plants to use
a decrease in nitrogen compounds available to organisms
If the nitrogen-fixing bacteria were destroyed by a virus then this will lead to decrease in nitrogen compounds available to organisms. option d)
In nitrogen fixation, the atmospheric nitrogen gets converted into a nitrogenous compound which gets consumed by the organism because nitrogen is the essential element of life. Nitrogen is a core component of amino acids which are the building blocks of proteins and of nucleic acids, and also are the building blocks of genetic material that is DNA and RNA. Therefore the nitrogen cycle is an important cycle which is responsible for sustainability of life on the Earth.
Nitrogen fixing bacteria, for example, Azotobacter carry out the nitrogen fixation. If such bacterias are destroyed then atmospheric nitrogen will not be converted into the nitrogenous compound which ultimately leads to decrease in the nitrogen because there will not be any nitrogen fixation taking place because of the destruction of nitrogen fixing bacteria.
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assume 100,000 consecutive newborns were examined in a population for signs of an 100% penetrant autosomal dominant condition. of eight affected newborns, five were born to unaffected parents. what is the new mutation rate?
The new mutation rate for all newborn children will be 1000000, thus the correct answer is option (C). 1 x 10⁵.
Automatic triumph This happens even if the complementary gene from the other parent is healthy. A dominant gene that is abnormal exists. It is also possible for the disease to manifest in a child as a new sickness when neither parent inherited the defective gene. There is a 50% chance that a parent's offspring will inherit an autosomal dominant condition from them. Pregnancy serves as proof of this.
The number of sporadic instances with the condition must equal two times the number of people evaluated times the number of newly identified cases in order to directly determine the mutation rate.
Thus, the new mutation rate:
μ = 2 x individual child examined x new mutation cases
= 2 x 100000 x 5
= 1000000
Thus 1 x 10⁵ is the correct answer.
The complete question is:
Assume 100,000 consecutive newborns were examined in a population for signs of a 100% penetrant autosomal dominant condition. of eight affected newborns, five were born to unaffected parents. what is the new mutation rate?
A. 1 x 10⁶
B. 2 x 10⁶
C. 1 x 10⁵
D. 2 x 10⁵
E. 4 x 10⁵
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what is endocytosis called when liquids are taken in by the cell?
Pinocytosis (Cell Drinking) is endocytosis called when liquids are taken by the cell.
The process by which the cell takes in the liquids together with dissolved tiny molecules is known as pinocytosis (the Greek word pino meaning "to drink"). The cell membrane folds during this process, forming tiny pockets that catch the cellular fluid and other dissolved materials. In order to catch the liquid and small molecules and transport them into the cell, the cell membrane subsequently closes around this tiny pocket to form vesicles. When such a vesicle joins a lysosome, the molecules are broken down by the digestive enzymes so that it can be recycled.
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Why are bryophytes only found in wet or damp environments?
Since they dry out very quickly and don't have roots or stems to help them transmit water, mosses are often found in moist locations. They only fail to thrive in saltwater. Typically, moss plants are relatively tiny.
In what ways are bryophytes real?A class of plants known as bryophyte do not produce fruits, seeds, or vascular structures. They're referred to as "amphibians of the plant kingdom." The presence of chloroplasts gives its body a thalloid green color. Antheridium is the male sexual organ, whereas archegonium is the female sexual organ.
Bryophytes reproduce in what ways?Both sexual and vegetative reproduction are possible in bryophytes. By combining the DNA of two parents during sexual reproduction, it is possible to create young plants that are genetically distinct from each of their parents. Such mixing does not occur during vegetative reproduction, and each young plant is produced from a single parent plant.
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Human DNA contains 3 billion base pairs
DNA replication takes 8 hours
DNA polymerase adds new nucleotides at a rate of 80
nucleotides/second
• How many replisomes must be working at the same time on
one strand of DNA to finish within 8 hours?
We would need approximately 2604 replisomes working simultaneously on one strand of DNA to replicate the entire 3 billion base pairs within 8 hours.
What is the replisome?The replisome is a complex of proteins that are responsible for carrying out DNA replication. To create two single strands of DNA, the replisome first unwinds double-stranded DNA. A brand-new complementary sequence of DNA is created for each of the resulting single strands.
To calculate the number of replisomes needed to replicate the entire 3 billion base pairs within 8 hours, we can use the following formula:
Number of replisomes = (total number of nucleotides) / (nucleotides added per second per replisome x seconds in 8 hours)
First, we need to calculate the total number of nucleotides in the DNA:
3 billion base pairs x 2 strands/base pair = 6 billion nucleotides
Putting in the values:
Number of replisomes = (6 billion) / (80 nucleotides/second/replisome x 28,800 seconds)
Number of replisomes = (6,000,000,000) / (2,304,000)
Number of replisomes = 2,604
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the national butterfly society maintains a database of all types of butterflies within the united states. one database table will store the butterfly species name and family classification number, with each species uniquely identified by a registration number. a second table will contain butterfly families, uniquely identified by the family classification number, and will be linked to the species table by means of the family classification number. the primary key of the species table is
what might cause a protein to become nonfunctional
Denatured proteins frequently lose their functional properties by unfolding or creating chaos in the polypeptide chains. Certain chemicals, change in temperature , or agitation can denature proteins.
What are protiens?Large macro- and biomolecules consisting of one or more extended chains of amino acid residues are known as proteins. In living things, proteins perform a number of functions, such as catalysing metabolic processes, replicating DNA, reacting to stimuli, giving cells and organisms structure, and transporting substances. The primary way that proteins differ from one another is the arrangement of their amino acids, which is determined by the nucleotide sequence of their genes and typically allows a protein to fold into a certain 3D structure that controls its function. A polypeptide is an organised group of amino acid residues. There is at least one lengthy polypeptide in every protein. Polypeptides having fewer than 20–30 residues are called peptides.
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where is the caruncle?
The caruncle is a small, fleshy protrusion that is located at the inner corner of the eye, closest to the nose.
A caruncle is a small, fleshy protuberance or growth that is found on the body of an animal, including a human. In humans, it is made up of modified sweat and oil glands and is responsible for keeping the eye lubricated. The caruncle is also known as the lacrimal caruncle or the medial canthus. It is a normal part of the anatomy of the eye and is present in all humans.
In birds, caruncles are most commonly found on the head and neck and are used for display and communication. In other animals, such as cows and sheep, caruncles may be found on the udder and are used for the production of milk.
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lace in order the steps involved for flavors on the tongue to create a perception in the brain.
1) Chemical substances in food disolve in saliva
2) Taste receptors are stimulated
3) Signals are sent to the thalamus
4) The frontal lobe perceives taste
lace in order the steps involved for flavors on the tongue to create a perception in the brain 1) Chemical substances in food disolve in saliva
What stages are involved in fragrances entering the nose and creating a perception in the brain?
Tiny molecules are emitted by odorous substances. When you breathe in, these molecules enter your nose. These compounds are detected by specific cells called olfactory receptors. The receptors send this information to your brain via your olfactory nerve, allowing you to smell.
Food chemical compounds dissolve in saliva. Taste receptors are triggered. The facial nerve sends signals to the thalamus. Taste perception is processed by the gustatory cortex.
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three different genotypes of garter snakes (a, b, and c) were reared at different temperatures. four individuals were in each trial. the table presents their weights (in grams). based on these data, which genotype appears to show phenotypic plasticity?
Genotype A only (20,25,27,29) (27,28,32,35) (29,32,34,39) (33,36,38,39).The genetic configuration that determines the features that an organism inherits from its parent is known as a genotype.
An organism's genotype is made up of all of its genetic components. The term "genotype" can also be used to describe the alleles or genetic variations that a person carries in a certain gene or genetic region.
The ploidy, or number of copies of each chromosome, found in that species, determines how many alleles a person can have for a given gene. In diploid organisms like humans, there are two complete sets of chromosomes, which means that each person has two alleles for each gene. Homozygous refers to a genotype when both alleles are the same.
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due to their shape, muscle cells are also called muscle ___
Muscle fibers are another name for muscle cells because of their form.
What are called cells?There are countless billions of cells in the human body. They not only take in nutrients from food and turn them into energy, but they also provide the body structure and carry out certain functions. A cell is made up of cytoplasm and is surrounded on all sides by a cell membrane. All living things are made up of cells, which are the smallest structural units of living matter and are typically microscopic in size. The majority of cells have one or more nuclei as well as other organelles that perform a range of functions.
What is the importance of cell?All living things—from bacteria to people—rely on cells for their structure and activity. They are regarded by scientists as the tiniest form of life. Cells contain the biological machinery which produces the proteins, chemicals, or signals necessary for all body functions. The presence or cells is one of the characteristics we use to assess whether an item is alive or not. Therefore, all the things we consider to be "living things," from the smallest to the largest animals and plants, are made of cells.
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what is the kingdom that contains single-celled organisms that live in extreme environments?
The kingdom that contains single-celled organisms that live in extreme environments is archaea.
A single cell makes up a unicellular creature, also known as a single-celled organism, as opposed to a multicellular organism, which is made up of many cells. Similar to Eukarya, Archaea have RNA polymerases that are more complex than those of bacteria.
Comparatively speaking to bacteria, archaea do not have peptidoglycan in their cell walls. Compared to bacteria and eukarya, archaea's membrane lipid bonding is different.
Existing genetic variations. Archaea also possess RNA polymerases that are more complex than those found in bacteria, similar to Eucarya. Comparatively speaking to bacteria, archaea do not have peptidoglycan in their cell walls. Compared to bacteria and eukarya, archaea's membrane lipid bonding is different. Existing genetic variations.
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which protein would elute first from a cation exchange column when a mixture of aspartate, serine and lysine are added to the column at ph 5.
The negatively charged amino acids, such as aspartate and glutamate, will elute first in comparison to the positively charged ones when this concept is applied to amino acids.
Cation-exchange, When the target molecule is positively charged, the stationary phase is negatively charged, and positively charged molecules are loaded to be drawn to it, chromatography is used. Therefore, the negatively charged amino acids will elute first. The sequence of elution is glutamate, leucine, and arginine due to their pI values of 3, 6, and 10, respectively. Chromatography that separates compounds based on their charges uses cation-exchange columns. Particularly in the cation-exchange column, a negatively charged resin will draw positively charged ions. Low pH may cause the proteins to aggregate, yet it is frequently employed to elute antibodies from Protein-A affinity columns. As an alternative, here arginine was evaluated as an eluent and compared with a more standard eluent of citrate.
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a botanist discovers a new species of plant in a tropical rain forest. after observing its anatomy and life cycle, she notes the following characteristics: flagellated sperm, internal structures with tracheids, separate gametophyte and sporophyte generations with the sporophyte dominant, and no seeds. this plant is probably most closely related to .
Answer:
Ferns
Explanation:
A fern is a member of a group of vascular plants (plants with xylem and phloem) that reproduce via spores and have neither seeds nor flowers. The polypodiophytes include all living pteridophytes except the lycopods, and differ from mosses and other bryophytes by being vascular
