Antigens that bind to the clonally produced B cell receptors (BCRs) start the process of B lymphocyte activation by starting signalling cascades that cause the transcription of a number of genes related to B cell activation.
When a B-receptor cell's identifies and attaches to an antigen, the B-cell is activated. However, the second element indicated above—stimulation by an active helper T cell—is often required for B-cell activation.
The immune system's B lymphocytes are created from stem cells in the bone marrow. also known as a B cell. Enlarge. blood cell formation. To develop into a red blood cell, platelet, or white blood cell, a blood stem cell must go through a number of stages.
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when a plant wilts, the stomata close. how does this help the plant?
The closure of a plant's stomata will retain water when the plant becomes dehydrated and wilts.
Two guard cells surround each stoma, a small pore or hole, and they expand and contract to close and open the stoma. The carbon dioxide content and the plant's water balance act as two controls on the opening and shutting of the stomata.
Guard cells inflate and bend as a result of water entering them through osmotic movement. The holes are opened by the guard cells expanding. Through open stomata, the plant absorbs carbon dioxide for use in photosynthesis. Through open stomata, oxygen and water vapor are also expelled back into the atmosphere.
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with parsimony analysis the best or optimal tree is the one requiring the minimum number of character state changes.
True, With parsimony analysis the best or optimal tree is the one requiring the minimum number of character state changes.
What is parsimony analysis?The principle that the most straightforward explanation is always preferable is known as Occam's razor, from which parsimony derives. When characters are optimally mapped onto the diagrams, parsimony analyses (when successful) lead to cladograms (branching diagrams) with the fewest number of steps (character transformations).
Parsimony, in general, is the idea that the most straightforward explanation for the data should be chosen. According to the principle of parsimony in phylogenetic analysis, a relationship hypothesis that calls for the fewest character changes is the one that has the greatest chance of being accurate. These character changes are known as DNA mutations in the field of molecular systematics.
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Full question:
True or False
with parsimony analysis the best or optimal tree is the one requiring the minimum number of character state changes.
*WILL GIVE BRAINLIEST*
1. Explain how ecosystems could be impacted from each indicator of climate change
A.) the rising atmospheric temps tires have contributed to warning of the ocean e increased carbon dioxide in the atmosphere also gets absorbed into oceans increasing its acidity
Answer:
The best indicator of ecological changes, as far as an aquatic ecosystem is considered is the primary producers - Phytoplanktons. The changes with them directly and indirectly affect that ecosystem as a whole.
Explanation:
Select each of the characteristics that are key features of genetic material.
Key features of genetic materials are:
a) It must be variable through infrequent mutation
d) It must encode the blueprint to form proteins & other structures
e) It must be able to replicate & transmit to progeny
What is genetic Material?The hereditary component of the cell is genetic material. It contains all information particular to an organism. Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, or RNA (ribonucleic acid). DNA can be found in the cytoplasm of prokaryotes like bacteria. In eukaryotes, which include plants and animals, DNA is found in the cell's nucleus (referred to as nuclear DNA) and, to a lesser extent, in extranuclear sites like the mitochondria (which contain mtDNA) and chloroplasts (containing cpDNA).
In the somatic cells of a multicellular organism, the genetic material that regulates the organism's makeup is identical. Because the genetic material can replicate along with the cell, new cells inherit the same genetic makeup as their parent cells.
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Full question:
the studded organelle that aids in protein synthesis____
The ribosome is a branched organelle that helps with protein synthesis.
All cells contain ribosomes, which are macromolecular organisms that carry out biological protein synthesis (mRNA translation). To create polypeptide chains, ribosomes combine amino acids in the order dictated by the codons of messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules. The short and big ribosomal subunits are the two main parts of ribosomes. Each subunit is made up of numerous ribosomal proteins and one or more ribosomal RNA (rRNA) molecules (RPs or r-proteins). [1][2][3] The translational apparatus also refers to the ribosomes and related components.
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the central nervous system consist of the brain and spinal cord. at which level of organization is the brain an example of?
Organs of the central nervous system include the brain and spinal cord. The brain and spinal cord, which are housed in the dorsal body cavity, are so crucial that they are protected by a bone shell due to their importance.
The spinal cord is located in the vertebral column's vertebral canal, and the brain is located in the cranial vault. The spinal cord and brain are connected at the foramen magnum, despite being thought of as two different organs.
Both nerves and ganglia are considered to be peripheral nervous system organs. Like muscles, which are made up of bundles of muscle fibers, so are nerves. The CNS transmits signals to peripheral organs including muscles and glands via spinal and cranial nerves.
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What is the complimentary DNA sequence
for each of the following:
a) 5' TCGTAGGCT 3'
b) 3' CCGAATGCAT 5'
Answer:
a) 3' AGCATCCGA 5'
b) 5' GGCTTACGTA 3'
Explanation:
Based on complementary base pairing rules, T pairs with A, whereas C pairs with G.
In addition, because complementary strands run in complementary opposing directions, if the original sequence is in the 3' → 5' direction, our new strand is in the 5' → 3' direction, and the opposite for the original sequence that starts in the 5' → 3' direction.
_____functions in the translation of proteins and synthesis of lipids
The endoplasmic reticulum is an organelle that functions in the translation of proteins and synthesis of lipids.
What are lipids?The group of molecules known as lipids is diverse and consists of chemicals such as waxes, fats, and other substances. As opposed to being soluble in polar solvents like ether, chloroform, and benzene, they are soluble in nonpolar solvents like water.
How does endoplasmic reticulum help in translating the proteins and synthesis of lipids?The endoplasmic reticulum is an organelle that participates in the translation of proteins and the creation of lipids (ER). The nuclear envelope is related to the ER, which is a network of flattened sacs and tubules. Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and smooth endoplasmic reticulum are the two different forms of ER (SER). On its cytoplasmic surface, the RER is covered in ribosomes, which are in charge of synthesising and altering proteins. After being carried to the RER lumen, these proteins are further folded and altered before being sent to other cell regions or released outside the cell. Steroids and phospholipids, among other lipids, are synthesised and altered by the SER.
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How do snails get pregnant?.
Snails reproduce by fertilization. Snails mate and lay eggs, which is how nearly everything else reproduces.
A hermaphrodite is any organism that has both male and female reproductive organs and is able to produce both eggs and spermatozoa. The snails seem to have both male and female characteristics.
Two enter two vaginal tracts when snails copulate. While both snails in a coupling transmit sperm, the snail with the best dart shot has a better probability of fertilizing eggs in the end. Some species of snails only release one love dart, whereas others, like the garden snail, release two.
The top portion of the right mantle cavity should be checked. Your snail is a male if it has a sheath next to its gills. If the penile sheath is not visible, the animal is a female. Calyptraeid gastropods are a class of immobile, filter-feeding marine snails that undergo sequential hermaphroditic sex changes from male to female throughout the course of their existence (protandry).
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By 1900, the peppered moth populations in areas around English cities were as much as 98% dark moths? Why? Explain what was happening during this time in your own words. PLEASE RESPOND!!
Answer:
Scientists have discovered the specific mutation that famously turned moths black during the Industrial Revolution. In an iconic evolutionary case study, a black form of the peppered moth rapidly took over in industrial parts of the UK during the 1800s, as soot blackened the tree trunks and walls of its habitat.
The particular mutation that famously turned moths black during the Industrial Revolution has been identified by scientists.
What happened to the peppered moth populations?As soot darkened the tree trunks and walls of its environment in the 1800s, a black variant of the peppered moth quickly overtook it in industrial areas of the UK, providing a classic evolutionary case study.
Up to 98% of peppered moth populations in areas surrounding English cities were black and 2% were light.
The peppered moth's evolution is an example of how air pollution during the Industrial Revolution caused directional color changes in the moth population.
Therefore, at that time, a manifestation of industrial melanism was the rise in the number of dark-colored moths.
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homologous chromosomes usually have the same arrangement of genes along their length. True/False ?
It is true that the homologous chromosomes have the same arrangement of genes present along their lengths.
Homologous chromosomes, also known as homologs, are the pair of chromosomes which are present in a diploid organisms. One of these chromosomes in the pair are obtained from the mother whereas the other chromosome is obtained from the father.
The word "homo" itself means same and the homologous chromosomes contain the same genes arranged along their lengths. However, these homologous chromosomes can carry different alleles of the same gene. These chromosomes have the same length as well as the same position of the centromere.
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Two different mice with yellow coat colors mate and have a litter of 6 mice, what is the number of mice that will have both yellow color fur and diabetes?
The number of mice that will have yellow fur out of the six litter will be four(4) this is as a result of the genotype.
What is genotype?An organism's genotype is made up of all of its genetic components. The term "genotype" can also be used to describe the alleles or genetic variations that a person carries in a certain gene or genetic region.
The ploidy, or number of copies of each chromosome, found in that species, determines how many alleles a person can have for a given gene. In diploid organisms like humans, there are two complete sets of chromosomes, which means that each person has two alleles for each gene.
Homozygous refers to a genotype when both alleles are the same. Heterozygous refers to a genotype when there are two distinct alleles.
Phenotype, the observable qualities and attributes of an individual or creature, is influenced by genotype.
When a yellow mouse was crossed to another yellow mouse, the F1 generation produces yellow and brown-black mice in the ratio 2 : 1. The yellow mice are never homozygous.
Yy is the heterozygous genotype (one dominant allele, one recessive allele). The phenotype of this genotype is yellow seed color.
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_____ is a signal molecule that binds to an intracellular receptor
Hormone signal molecules are among the most prevalent kinds of molecules that bind to intracellular receptors.
Small hydrophobic signalling molecules with the ability to permeate across the plasma membrane elicit a response from these intracellular receptors. This class of signalling chemicals, which also comprises hormone insulin, vitamin D3, & retinoic acid, is best represented by the steroid hormones. Intracellular receptors, which include those for steroid hormones, lipid soluble vitamins, and tiny molecules like nitric oxide & hydrogen peroxide, need ligand that are membrane permeable. Macromolecules known as intracellular receptors can be found either as free, soluble parts of the cytoplasm or as parts of different intracellular compartments. These receptors work by being able to identify and bind particular ligands. Three categories of intercellular communication exist: cell-to-cell contact signalling, autocrine, paracrine, and endocrine signalling. This signalling system is employed.
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An organism is exposed to a mutagen, such as x-rays or ultraviolet light. What could be the effect of the mutagen on the organism? select all of the answers that apply.
The organism's response to the mutagen may be:
The mutagen may interfere with gene function, which would be bad for the organism.The mutagen might alter gene activity in a way that is advantageous to the organism.The codon-anticodon binding may be altered by the mutagen.A mutagen has the power to alter genetic code to create a mutation, which affects an organism's morphology and functionality. These agents may be chemical, physical, or biological mutagens.Among mutagens' side effects are:The mutagen may interfere with gene function, which would be harmful to the organism. For example, structural changes in some proteins brought on by mutations can result in diseases like Fanconi anemia or Xerodermia pigmentosum. Another negative effect of mutagen exposure is cancer.To know more about mutations visit :-
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An organism is exposed to a mutagen, such as X-rays or ultraviolet light. What could be the effect of the mutagen on the organism? Select all of
the answers that apply
A The mutagen may disrupt gene function to the harm of the organism
B. The mutagen may change gene function in a way that benefits the organism.
C. The mutagen may change the genetic material of the cell from DNA to proteins.
D. The mutagen may change the binding between codons and anticodons.
E.The mutagen may have little or no observable effect on the organism.
Research the etymology of the word okay or ok. Is ok a distinctly american term? what is the story of its origin?.
The origin of the word 'ok' or 'okay' is uncertain, but it is believed to have originated in the mid-19th century United States as a variant of the word 'all correct'. It is uncertain whether the word is of American origin or whether it was brought to the US by immigrants.
What is mean by etymology? Etymology is the study of the origin of words and how their meanings have changed over time. It is a branch of linguistics that focuses on the history of words and their development from earlier forms. Etymology looks at the way words have evolved from their earliest recorded forms to their current state, tracking changes in form, meaning, and usage. For example, the English word “cat” can be traced back to the Old English word “catt”, which in turn is derived from the Latin word “catus”. By tracing the development of words over time, etymologists can gain a better understanding of how languages have developed and evolved. Additionally, etymological research can help to shed light on the history of cultural practices and beliefs. Etymology can also provide insight into the way that words have come to have their current meanings, as well as their changing connotations over time.To learn more about etymology refer to:
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please help me !!Drag and drop each label to the correct area of the Venn diagram. Each area of the diagram will contain two answers.
Compare and contract science and technology using the Venn diagram below
Technology
Developed through invention and design
Has advanced due to the advance of the other
Searches how to improve observations
Science
Is advanced by experimentation
Searches how to improve observations
Searches for the causes of observation
Both
Has advanced through the ages
What is science and technology?Science refers to the systematic study of the natural world through observation and experimentation in order to understand and explain phenomena. Technology refers to the application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes, such as in the design, development, and use of tools, machines, and systems.
The relationship between science and technology is often described as a feedback loop, where scientific discovery drives technological progress and technological advancements enable further scientific investigation.
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chromosomes line up along the equator not in homologous pairs
The paired chromosomes line up along the equator (middle) of the cell. This occurs only in metaphase I. In metaphase of mitosis and meiosis II, it is sister chromatids that line up along the equator of the cell
What is homologous chromosomes ?The two chromosomes that make up a pair are typically inherited from the mother and the father. As an illustration, a cell's two copies of chromosome 1 are referred to as homologous chromosomes.
The chromosomal pairs line up along the cell's equator, known as the metaphase plate, with the help of these microtubules.
The pairing of each maternal chromosome with its corresponding paternal chromosome occurs during meiosis. A typical female has 23 homologous chromosomes, compared to a typical male's 22. The reason for this is that men' X and Y chromosomes are not identical.
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Wave A ha a greater wavelength than Wave B. What can you tell me about the frequencie of Wave A and B
If Wave A has a greater wavelength than Wave B. Then frequency of Wave A is smaller than frequency of Wave B.
A wave's wavelength and frequency are inversely proportional. The result is that waves with high frequencies have a short wavelength, whereas waves with low frequencies have a longer wavelength.
The distance between two identical locations in successive cycles is known as the wavelength, and it is used to describe a waveform signal that is sent over a wire or in space.
Frequency is the number of waves that pass a specific area in a defined amount of time. As a result, the frequency is 2 per second if a wave travels through in half a second.
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Place the four images from the cell cycle in the correct chronological order. four magnified cells
Through mitosis somatic and germ cells divide and produce two identical daughter cells. The correct order is C, B, A, D. Option C.
What is mitosis?Mitosis is a sequence of events that follows the interphase and preceeds cytokinesis. Together, they compose the cell division process through which a diploid somatic cell (2n), produces two identical daughter diploid cells (2n).
During cell division, the whole-cell first suffers duplication of its content and then it separates. Mitosis occurs in somatic cells and in germ cells.
Mitosis is divided into four phases,
Prophase ⇒ chromosomes condensate, and the nuclear membrane breaks. Metaphase ⇒ fibers of the spindle apparatus take chromosomes toward the equatorial cell plane, where they line up. Anaphase ⇒ specialized enzymes break the bonds between chromatids and separate them. Each chromatid migrates to one of the poles. Telophase ⇒ the new chromosomes are already in the corresponding poles, and the nuclear membrane forms again in each pole.The correct order is C, B, A, D. Option C.
C ⇒ interphase. Lax chromatine.
B ⇒ prophase. Condensed and visible chromosomes.
A ⇒ metaphase. Chromosomes in the equatorial plane.
D ⇒ anaphase. Sister chromatids migrating to the poles.
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Complete question
Place the four images from the cell cycle in the correct chronological order.
Four magnified cells. Options,
A. Image A, image D, image B, image C
B. Image C, image D, image B, image A
C. Image C, image B, image A, image D
D. Image B, image C, image D, image A
Briefly explain how the diagram to the right makes a good
model to represent the decay of a radioactive element.
You are encouraged to label the diagram.
You must use complete sentences.
An element's radioactive decay graph can be categorized as an exponential graph, more particularly, the decay of an element through exponential processes. As x increases exponentially in these graphs, y declines and gets closer to zero.
What is Radioactive Decay (Half Life) Equation?The centre of each atom, or nucleus, which accounts for the majority of an element's mass, is made up of a specific number of protons and neutrons. Even though every element has a unique nucleus, they are not always stable. Radiation is the name for the rays and particles that are emitted by unstable elements in an effort to stabilize their nucleus. As long as the element doesn't have a stable nucleus, this process, known as radioactive decay, continues on its own. Different substances breakdown at different speeds when they go through radioactive decay. Through the use of half lifetimes, these rates are measured. The duration of time before half of the nucleus disintegrates is known as a half-life, as its name would imply.How much of an element remains after a specific amount of time can be calculated using the following equation using half-lives:N\s= N ( 1 /2 ) n
Where N denotes the quantity of the element still present, N 0 is the quantity of the element at the beginning, and n denotes the number of half lives that have passed. By dividing the amount of time that has elapsed (t) by the duration of the half-life (T), one can determine the number of half-lives that have passed, even if this is unknown:n = t / T.
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How do Mendel's experiments show that 5 a traits may be dominant or recessive?.
The monohybrid cross used in Mendel's experiments demonstrates that the Traits may be dominant or recessive.
One of the parental traits from a monohybrid cross between two pure breeding varieties is always present in the hybrid progeny, but the opposite characteristic is never displayed in the F1 generation. According to this theory, two alleles of a gene are frequently either dominant or recessive, and the presence of the dominant allele in F1 hybrids prevents the development of the recessive allele.
In accordance with the results of Mendel's studies, some genetic traits can have opposing phenotypes depending on whether two homozygous genotypes or genotypes with totally dominant or completely recessive alleles are genetically mixed to produce the trait.
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Which layer of the atmosphere is most strongly affected by conditions on earth's surface?.
The lowermost layer of the atmosphere (the troposphere) is the most strongly affected by conditions on earth's surface.
How many layers on atmosphere of earth's surface?The atmosphere of the Earth is composed of several distinct layers. Each layer has unique characteristics that help to shield the planet from the effects of outer space. The layers are, from nearest the surface, the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere.The troposphere is the closest layer to the Earth's surface. It extends from the surface up to about 7-14 miles high, depending on latitude. This layer holds most of the Earth's weather, clouds, and air pollution.The stratosphere sits above the troposphere, extending from 7 to 30 miles high. This layer features the ozone layer, which absorbs much of the sun's ultraviolet radiation. As a result, the stratosphere is much warmer than the troposphere.The mesosphere starts above the stratosphere at 30 miles high and extends up to 50 miles. Temperatures in this layer can reach a frigid -90 degrees Celsius. This is where meteors burn up before they reach the ground.Above the mesosphere is the thermosphere, which extends from 50 to 370 miles high. This layer is extremely thin and contains a few molecules of gas, which is why it is sometimes called the "exosphere". Temperatures here can reach over 1000 degrees Celsius.Finally, the exosphere is the outermost layer of the Earth's atmosphere. It extends from 370 miles up to 6,200 miles high. This is where satellites orbit and some of the Earth's atmosphere escapes and mixes with space.To learn more about atmosphere layer refer to:
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Each of the following organisms would be considered a microbe exceptmushroomyeastprotozoanbacteriumvirus
A mushroom is a type of microorganism.Microorganisms include bacteria, fungi, archaea, and protists, among others.
Since prions & viruses are generally regarded as non-living entities, they are not regarded as microorganisms. Viruses, bacteria, archaea, fungus, and protists are the five main types of microorganisms despite their truly remarkable diversity. For instance, yeasts, which are human fungi, are microbes, whereas filamentous fungi, such as mould or mushroom, were multicellular and thus not microorganisms.A mushroom is a type of microorganism.Microorganisms include bacteria, fungi, archaea, and protists, among others. Viruses are the smallest microbes. Some calculations state that the rhinoviruses that cause the common cold—500 million of them—could fit on the top of a pin. Because they can only exist and reproduce within the cells of several other living beings, they are different from other living things.
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which meristematic structure creates new xylem and phloem?
A plant's breadth is increased by meristems between the xylem and phloem.
Meristems are areas of unspecialized cells that can divide into new cells in plants. Unspecialized cells produced by meristems have the capacity to develop into any kind of specialized cell. Only specific areas of the plant, such as the tips of roots and shoots, as well as the space between the xylem and phloem, contain them.
Plants continue to increase in height and width throughout their lives thanks to the meristem cells they produce: Meristems near the tips of roots produce new cells continuously, enabling roots to lengthen.
A plant's tips of shoots, known as meristems, allow it to continue growing higher and spreading farther. Trees have yearly growth rings as a result of this.
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Why is mitosis important for humans?.
Answer:
Role of mitosis:
• They aid in high cell number, often known as growth.
• They aid in healing damaged cells or regeneration of cells in cuts or wounds.
• Mitosis ensures genetic stability in freshly created cells.
Explanation:
Mitosis is the mechanism by which the daughter cells that are genetically identical to the parent cells are produced. The cell clones - or replicates - its chromosomes, then evenly divides the replicated chromosomes to ensure that each daughter cell has a complete set.
Your body has trillions of cells (thousands of millions). However, you began life as a single cell - a fertilized egg cell. This cell is then divided and divided again to produce other cells in a process known as mitosis.
Mitosis is a process that produces additional cells that are genetically identical to the original cell. It is essential for the development of embryos, as well as for the growth and development of human bodies. Mitosis is the process through which new cells are formed and old, destroyed, or damaged cells are replaced.
A cell splits into two identical daughter cells during mitosis. Because the daughter cells must have a copy of every chromosome, the process commences by duplicating the chromosomes and then meticulously segregating the copies to provide each new cell with a complete set.
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The term for the use of microorganisms to restore damaged environments is
epidemiology
bioremediation
ecology
serology
chemotherapy
The term for the use of microorganisms to restore damaged environments is (b). bioremediation is correct option .
A microorganism, often known as a microbe, is a microscopic-sized organism that can be either a single cell or a group of cells. Ancient texts, including those found in India's Jain scriptures from the sixth century BC, express suspicions about the potential existence of unseen microscopic life. When Anton van Leeuwenhoek first observed microorganisms under a microscope in the 1670s, the scientific study of them had just begun. Louis Pasteur's discovery that bacteria were to blame for food rotting in the 1850s disproved the notion of spontaneous creation. Robert Koch made the discovery that bacteria were to blame for tuberculosis, cholera, diphtheria, and anthrax in the 1880s.
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sublimation process diagram
Explanation:
[tex]here \: is \: your \: answer.[/tex]
[tex]have \: a \: good \: day.[/tex]
Is Fergus a time traveler?.
Not a democracy, the Roman Republic existed from 509 BC to 27 BC. Once again advocated the positive aspects of the Roman republican government around the close of the 20th century.
The topic becomes more complicated if something that resembles modern democracy is mentioned. Many historians of the 20th century discounted Polybius. The elite, not popular power, would have been in charge in reality. In addition to the legislatures of the tribes, curias, and centurias, there was the Senate, which was indirectly elected. Of the 35 tribes that were already there, four gathered the underprivileged employees in the city, while the other 31 were owned. British historian Fergus Millar, who believed that the people of Rome had been powerful, once again advocated the positive aspects of the Roman republican government around the close of the 20th century.
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Key hormones of the sympathetic nervous system include:
A. acetylcholine and insulin.
B. epinephrine and norepinephrine.
C. glucagon and noradrenaline.
D. norepinephrine and acetylcholine.
A network of neurons in your body known as the sympathetic nervous system aids in the activation of the "fight-or-flight" response. When you're under stress, in danger, or working out, this system becomes more active. Option D is correct Answer.
What is sympathetic vs parasympathetic nervous system?"Fight-or-flight" reactions are under the direction of the sympathetic system. Or to put it another way, this approach gets the body ready for hard exercise. In fact, the bodily processes that we would anticipate to make this possible take place. Functions of "rest and digest" are governed by the parasympathetic nervous system.The sympathetic nervous system is activated by the hypothalamus by sending signals to the adrenal glands via the autonomic nerves in response to a distress signal from the amygdala. The epinephrine hormone, sometimes referred to as adrenaline, is released into the bloodstream as a result of this response by these glands.Saliva production is stimulated as part of the PSNS's rest-and-digest function; saliva includes enzymes that aid in the digestion of food. Making tears is referred to as "lacrimation." Your eyes' fragile tissues are protected by tears, which keep them moist.To Learn more About sympathetic nervous system refer to:
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Which is the role of the electron transport chain in the process of photosynthesis?.
Electron transport contributes to the creation of a proton gradient that drives the synthesis of ATP and stores energy in the reduced form of the coenzyme NADPH.
Light energy is transformed into chemical energy during photosynthesis, a metabolic process that creates carbohydrates. In the light-dependent processes, ATP, NADPH, and oxygen are produced using light energy and water (O2). An electron transport chain is employed to create the proton gradient that creates ATP. Thus, the Calvin cycle enzymes in the chloroplast stroma use both ATP and NADPH, which are produced by the flow of electrons through photosystems I and II, to convert CO2 to carbohydrates. The primary goal of the electron transport chain is to accumulate enough extra hydrogen ions (protons) in the intermembrane space to create a gradient in their concentration in comparison to the matrix of the mitochondria.
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