The characteristic is most likely X-linked dominant in both families because it does not pass down across generations and afflicted people have one affected parent.
It is not X-linked in family 2 because the sick man II-8 has an unaffected daughter. In the case of X-linked loci, an afflicted male would pass on the trait to all of his daughters. In family 1, it might be X-linked or autosomal.
X-linked dominant inheritance refers to genetic conditions associated with mutations in genes on the X chromosome. Her one copy of the mutation is sufficient to cause disease in both males (one X chromosome) and females (two X chromosomes).
Families with X-linked recessive disorders often affect males in each generation, but rarely females. However, in X-linked dominant disorders, mutations in one copy of the X-linked gene cause the disease in both males and females.
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Which of the following mRNA modifications are common in human cells? a) alternative splicing b) intron removal and exon joining c) 3 poly-A tail addition d) 5' cap addition e 5' cap addition, intron removal and exon joining, 3 poly-A tail addition and alternative el splicing
Alternative splicing, intron removal & exon joining, 3' poly-A tail addition, 5' cap addition, All of them occur often in human cell mRNA changes.
The most frequent alternative splicing process in mammalian cells is said to be exon skipping, also referred as cassette exons, which completely skips one or more exons.
Only one exon out of each cluster is incorporated in the final mRNA, with the alternative exons in each cluster being mutually exclusive. As a result of this gene architecture, this gene can produce 480 distinct mRNAs by alternative splicing. Splicing is a rare occurrence in prokaryotes and happens in non-coding RNAs like tRNAs.
(Which of the following mRNA modifications are common in human cells?
5' cap addition
intron removal and exon joining
3' poly-A tail addition
alternative splicing
All of the above are common mRNA modifications in human cells.)
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How do you split cells in biology?
To split cells in biology, you can use a process called cytokinesis, which is the division of the cytoplasm and organelles between two daughter cells
In biology, the process of splitting cells is known as cytokinesis. There are two main types of cell division: mitosis and meiosis.
Mitosis is the process of a single cell dividing into two identical daughter cells. It occurs in somatic (body) cells and is used for growth and repair. During mitosis, the DNA is replicated and the cell goes through four phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
Meiosis, on the other hand, is the process of a single cell dividing into four non-identical daughter cells. It occurs in germ cells (cells used for reproduction) and is used to create gametes (sperm and egg cells). During meiosis, the DNA is replicated and the cell goes through two rounds of division, resulting in the production of four haploid cells.
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2. What is the overall impact to and consequences of the invasion on the biodiversity of the ecosystem?
The composition and framework of natural communities around the world are under threat from invasive species on a growing basis.
Impact The ecological and evolutionary integrity of natural ecosystems has been significantly compromised by biological invasion, which will impair the ecosystems' capacities and frequently result in natural disasters.Industries, towns, and indigenous cultures that depend on the nation's natural resources are destroyed by invasive species that outcompete local plants and animals. Additionally, they damage streams' quality, which reduces recreational options and harms the water supply.Biological invasions are among the most significant ecological disturbances that endanger native biodiversity. The global structure and function of ecosystems will be significantly impacted by an anticipated rise in the rate of species extinction.For more information on invasive species kindly visit to
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The starchy endosperm plays what role in the barley kernel...
Reserves of food. reserves of fat, carbohydrates, or (rarely) protein that are found in cells and tissues and serve as a vital energy reserve that can be released and used to produce ATP when the body needs it.
Animals, for instance, store fat in adipose tissue while storing carbohydrates in the form of the storage molecule glycogen in the liver and muscle cells. Starch, which can be found in seeds (where it is mobilised at germination) and perennating organs (see perennation), is a major storage compound in plants. Some species also use oils as significant storage materials (e.g. in the seeds of the castor-oil plant). The barley grain's endosperm, which is the biggest tissue, is frequently referred to as the "starchy endosperm."
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Why do we only see Neanderthal input in non-African genomes? Neanderthals never interbred with Homo sapiens in Africa. Only Y chromosome DNA can be transmitted from Neanderthal genomes. Neanderthals were adapted to a cold European climate. Only mtDNA can be transmitted from Neanderthal genomes.
In Africa, Neanderthals and Homo sapiens did not interbreed. European Homo sapiens' genomes contain their genomic traces interbreeding between the two did not start until after Homo sapiens left Africa.
Who were the Neanderthals?The extinct Neanderthals, also known as Neandertals, were a group of ancient archaic humans that lived in Eurasia until about 40,000 years ago. Demographic problems such inbreeding and limited population sizes, competitive replacement, interbreeding and assimilation with Homo sapiens, illness, and/or a mix of these factors are some of the theories put out as to why the Neanderthals went extinct. The exact time that the Neanderthal lineage split off from the modern human lineage is unknown; research has produced dates that range from 315,000 to more than 800,000 years ago. The finding of Neanderthals is the result of a large number of fossils, particularly those dating from after 130,000 years ago. The Neanderthal 1 type specimen was found in the Neander Valley in what is now Germany in 1856.
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You are riding a bike with a bag in the front basket. A friend on the sidewalk watches you ride by, heading south. Which statement best describes how the bag's motion is reiative
to the frame of reference - you and your friend?
© You observe the bag at rest, but your friend obserues it moving south.
©You and your friend both observe the bag moving to the south.
© Your friend observes the bag accelerating north, while you see it standing stil.
©You and your friend observe the bag's velocity decreasing.
You are riding a bike with a bag in the front basket. A friend on the sidewalk watches you ride by, heading south. The statement which best describes how the bag's motion is relative to the frame of reference - you and your friend is that You observe the bag at rest, but your friend observes it moving south which is therefore denoted as option A.
What is Relative motion?In a scenario where there is no fixed point of view, the motion of an item is said to be relative.
For example, if you are travelling in a train and the train is moving at a speed of 10 km/hr, then your speed according to another passenger sitting on that train is zero or at rest which depicts option A.
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How do bacteria react to changing harsh environmental conditions?
Bacteria can adapt to changing harsh environmental conditions through mechanisms such as genetic mutations, horizontal gene transfer, and regulation of gene expression.
Bacteria are highly adaptable organisms that can survive in a wide range of environments, including harsh environmental conditions such as extreme temperatures, low nutrient levels, and exposure to toxins. They achieve this adaptability through a variety of mechanisms, including: Bacteria can undergo random genetic mutations that alter their DNA, potentially leading to changes in their structure or function that allow them to better survive in harsh environments. Bacteria can exchange genetic material through processes such as conjugation, transduction, and transformation. This allows them to acquire new traits and adaptations that are beneficial in harsh environments. Overall, bacteria have developed complex mechanisms to adapt to changing environmental conditions and to ensure their survival.
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since this generation gives rise to haploid cells in boxes 4 and 5 it must do so though the cell division process of
since this generation gives rise to haploid cells in boxes 4 and 5 it must do so though the cell division process meiosis.
meiosis is a process in which the chromosome number is halved during gamete formation.
in meiosis the cell contains the diploid number of chromosome which then converts to 4 cells.
As human chromosome has 46 chromosomes it will yield 4 cells.
The role of meiosis is on the other hand,is for the production of reproductive gametes in the reproductive organs.
meiosis has 2 phase, prophase 1 , metaphase 1, anaphase 1, telophase 1
which comes under meiosis 1 and meiosis 2 includes prophase 2 , metaphase 2, anaphase 2, telophase 2.
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coral polyps build a _____________ case around themselves.
Coral polyps build a calyx case around themselves. Calyx is the defensive cup on which the coral polyp sits. It is made of calcium carbonate.
The skeletons of stony corals are secreted by the downward part of the polyp. This method yields a cup or calyx, in which the poly sits. The walls enclosing the cup are named the theca, and the floor is called the basal plate. Calcium carbonate is secreted by reef-building polyps and builds a protective cup named a calyx within which the polyps sit. When polyps are physically emphasized, they contract into their calyx so that practically no portion is uncovered above their skeleton.
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what is the kingdom that contains single-celled organisms that live in extreme environments?
Answer:
Archaebacteria
Explanation:
To their surprise, they discovered unicellular (one-cell) organisms in the samples. These organisms are today classified in the kingdom, Archaebacteria. Archaebacteria are found in extreme environments such as hot boiling water and thermal vents under conditions with no oxygen or highly acid environments.
which of the letters in the figure indicates the vagus nerve? a) A. b) B. c) C. d) D.
The parasympathetic cranial outflow includes the vagus nerve (cranial nerve X), which regulates the normal operation of the organs in the thoracic and upper abdominal cavities. Thus, option A is correct.
What is the parasympathetic cranial outflow?The third, seventh, ninth, and tenth cranial nerves, as well as the second and third sacral nerves, are the exit points for the neurones of the parasympathetic nervous system from the central nervous system. The craniofacial outflow is another name for this branch.
When there is a threat, the sympathetic nervous system gets the body ready for the “fight or flight” reaction.
Therefore, The parasympathetic nervous system, on the other hand, prevents the body from overworking itself and returns it to a calm, collected state.
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a serving of soup contains 4.0 g of fat, 12.0 g of carbohydrates, and 4.0 g of protein. determine how many calories (cal) are contained in this serving.
The quantity of calories in fat is 36 calories, carbs are 48 calories, and proteins are 16 calories.
According to the USDA:
Carbohydrates have 4 calories per gramme, whereas protein has 4 calories per gramme and fat contains 9 calories per gramme.
We are given the following:
Fat content of a soup serving = 4.0 g
12.0 g carbohydrate mass per soup serving
Protein content in a soup serving = 4.0 g
Using the unitary method:
1 gramme of fat has 9 calories.
As a result, 4.0 gramme of fat will supply = 9 *4 = 36 Cal
Carbs: Each gramme of carbohydrates contains 4 calories.
As a result, 12.0 gramme of carbs provides = 12 * 4 = 48Cal
Proteins: 1 gramme of protein has 4 calories.
As a result, 4.0 gramme of protein will supply = 4 * 4 = 16Cal
As a result, the quantity of calories in fat is 36 calories, carbs are 48 calories, and proteins are 16 calories.
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what protects neurons and glia from bacterial toxins, infectious agents, etc., and maintains the composition and balance of ions in the interstitial fluid?
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) protects neurons and glia from bacterial toxins, infectious agents, etc., and maintains the composition and balance of ions in the interstitial fluid.
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a specialised structure that protects neurons and glia from bacterial toxins, infectious agents, and other potentially harmful substances while also regulating the composition and balance of ions in the brain's interstitial fluid.
The BBB is a selective barrier formed by the densely packed endothelial cells that line the walls of blood vessels in the brain. Tight junctions connect these cells, preventing molecules and ions from freely diffusing between the bloodstream and brain tissue. Furthermore, endothelial cells are surrounded by astrocyte foot processes, which strengthen the barrier and regulate the exchange of nutrients and waste products between blood and brain tissue.
The BBB is highly selective, allowing only certain molecules to pass through, such as oxygen, glucose, and amino acids, while blocking others, such as large proteins, toxins, and infectious agents. This selective permeability is critical for maintaining the proper chemical environment in the brain, which is required for neurons and glia to function properly.
The BBB is also important in maintaining the ion balance in the brain's interstitial fluid, which is necessary for proper neural function. The BBB, for example, aids in the maintenance of proper levels of potassium and sodium ions in the brain, which are required for nerve impulse transmission.
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Striated, multi-nucleate cells are commonly found in Skeletal muscle tissue (true or false)
True. Striated, multi-nucleate cells are a characteristic feature of
skeletal muscle tissue.
Skeletal muscle is a type of muscle tissue that is attached to bones and is responsible for voluntary movements of the body. The muscle fibers in skeletal muscle tissue are long and cylindrical, and they have multiple nuclei located on the periphery of the cell. The striations in skeletal muscle fibers are due to the arrangement of actin and myosin filaments, which are responsible for the contraction of the muscle fiber. Skeletal muscle tissue is under conscious control and can generate large amounts of force, making it important for movement and posture. In contrast, smooth muscle tissue is not striated, and cardiac muscle tissue has a different pattern of striations and nuclei, and both are not multinucleate.
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The _____ ______ is the ability to reach threshold without stimulation
The pacemaker potential is a type of electrical potential created by cells in the heart and other excitable tissues. It is the electrical signal that initiates an action potential,
A brief electrical signal travels along the cell membrane, triggering cellular activity. The pacemaker potential is generated by a combination of ion channels and voltage-gated ion channels. It is capable of reaching the threshold without stimulation, meaning that it can generate its own electrical signal without any external stimulus. This is due to the concentration gradient of ions across the cell membrane, which creates an electrical potential. The voltage-gated ion channels also help to maintain the pacemaker potential. These channels open and close in response to changes in the membrane potential, allowing ions to flow in and out of the cell and helping to maintain the potential.
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microorganisms require phosphorus, sulfur, iron, and magnesium for metabolism. what specifically are these elements used for in microbial metabolism or cellular structures?
These components are utilised in cellular or microbiological metabolism as ultimate e- acceptors.
How does metabolism affect gaining or losing weight?Weight gain and decrease are strongly influenced by metabolism. Weight loss happens when the body expends more energy than it consumes through meals. This is due to the fact that the body must utilise fat-stored energy in order to up again for calorie deficit.
Which elements have the potential to affect metabolism?Numerous variables, such as heredity, ageing, body mass, and hormonal balance, have an impact on metabolism. Resting metabolic rate (BMR), or the quantity of calories burned while at rest, is influenced by genes.
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Many proteins in the cytosol are _____ that accelerate metabolic reactions.
A) carbohydrates
B) enzymes
C) lipids
D) messengers
E) ions
the type of chemical linkage that joins the hydrophobic tails to the hydrophilic heads in membrane lipids in bacteria is
Ester linkage is the sort of chemical bond that connects the hydrophobic tails to the hydrophilic heads in bacterial membrane lipids.
In contrast to archaea, which have membranes made of isoprenoid alkyl chains linked by ether linkages to glycerol-1-phosphate (G1P), bacteria and eukaryotes have membranes made of fatty acids linked to glycerol-3-phosphate (G3P) via ester bonds. This results in the glycerol phosphate backbone having the opposite stereochemistry.
While bacterial phospholipids are made up of straight fatty acids coupled by ester bonds to the enantiomeric glycerol-3-phosphate backbone, archaeal lipids are made up of highly methylated isoprenoid chains that are ether-linked to a glycerol-1-phosphate backbone.
Ester linkages are essential elements of lipid molecules. Lipids combine to produce lipid bilayers in our bodies, which are used to make cell membranes and other organelles. They are able to achieve this due to their dual hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties.
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The above question is incomplete. Check complete question below -
The type of chemical linkage that joins the hydrophobic tails to the hydrophilic heads in membrane lipids in bacteria is
A. Ester linkage
B. Covalent bonds
C. ionic bonds
D. Ether linkage
A _____ is a small pouch, or sac, found in the lining, or wall, of a tubular organ such as the colon.
A diverticulum is the small pouch, or sac, found in the lining or wall of a tubular organ such as the colon.
Diverticula are common in the colon, especially in older adults, and are usually asymptomatic. However, if the diverticula become inflamed or infected, a condition known as diverticulitis, it can cause abdominal pain, fever, and changes in bowel habits. In severe cases, diverticulitis may require hospitalization and treatment with antibiotics or even surgery. The formation of diverticula in the colon is often related to a low-fiber diet and other lifestyle factors.
Colon: The colon, also known as the large intestine, is a part of the digestive system that extends from the cecum, where it is joined to the small intestine, to the rectum, where it ends in the anus. The colon is responsible for the final stages of digestion, absorption of water and electrolytes, and the elimination of solid waste from the body in the form of feces.
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the thermoreceptors in the skin are classified as receptors and receptors. t/f
Thermoreceptors in the skin are divided into low- and high-threshold receptors.
Define thermoreceptors.
Free nerve endings called thermoreceptors are found in the skin, liver, skeletal muscles, and hypothalamus. Cold thermoreceptors are 3.5 times more prevalent than heat receptors.
TRPV1 is the name of the thermoreceptor that responds to capsaicin and other heat-generating substances. The TRPV1 receptor responds to heat by opening channels that let ions pass through, producing the sensation of heat or burning. There are two types of thermoreceptors: warm and cold. Cold fibers react the opposite way to changes in temperature from warmth fibers, who are stimulated by rising temperatures and inhibited by decreasing ones.
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Identify the shape of the bacteria
Bacteria are classified into five different groups according to their shape. one of them is the cocci group, composed of spherical bacteria. In the image we can identify spherical cells (white circles), which might be cocci.
What is bacteria classification?
Bacteria are prockaryotic unicellular organisms that might show cytoplasmic extensions or not (phlagellum), and might be either solitary or form colonies.
Bacteria are classified into different groups according to their characteristics (i.e. gram possitive or negative, mobile or non-mobile).
Regarding their shape, they are classified into five different categories,
Cocci ⇒ spherical shape, Bacilli ⇒rod shape, Spirilla ⇒spiral shape, Vibrios ⇒comma shapeSpirochaetes ⇒corkscrew shape.In the exposed example we can see several spherical shapes that might belong to cocci bacteria.
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In temporal isolation, two species that breed during different times of the day cannot mix their gametes.
Which of these is an example of temporal isolation?
-One species is nocturnal, and the other species is not.
-One is a type of primate, the other is a type of marsupial.
-One species performs a specific courtship dance. the other species does not.
-The average weight of the individuals in one species is 45 kg; in the other species the average is 290 kg.
-One species is found only in New York, the other only in London.
An illustration of temporal isolation is when one species engages in a particular courtship dance while the other species does not.
What is a good illustration of temporal isolation?Temporal isolation occurs when two or more species reproduce at dissimilar periods. For instance, three different orchid species might be found in the same rain forest. Every species has flowers that bloom for just one day and must be pollinated on that day in order to set seed.
What are some examples of appetitive conditioning?Access to food, drink, or sex are a few examples of the positive reinforcing stimuli used in appetite-based training. It's interesting to note that animals who have been exposed to an appetising stimuli, like food, will frequently approach and make contact with the stimulus to indicate its availability.
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what is the probability that each of the following pairs of parents will produce the indicated offspring? (assume independent assortment of all gene pairs.)
The probability of offspring from specific parents, we need to know the genotype of each parent. The genotype is the set of genes that an individual carries for a particular trait. BB offspring is 25% , cc offspring is 25% and probability is 0%
The genotype of an individual is determined by the combination of alleles that they inherit from their parents.
We can use Punnett squares to calculate the probability of offspring with a particular genotype. Punnett squares are diagrams that show the possible combinations of alleles from each parent and the resulting genotypes of the offspring.
Here are some examples of calculating the probability of offspring from specific parents:
Two parents who are heterozygous for a trait (Bb) are crossed. What is the probability that they will produce a homozygous dominant offspring (BB)?
The Punnett square for this cross would look like this:
B b
B BB Bb
b Bb bb
The probability of producing a BB offspring is 25%, since there is only one BB genotype out of the four possible genotypes.
Two parents who are carriers of a genetic disorder (Cc) are crossed. What is the probability that they will produce an affected offspring (cc)?
The Punnett square for this cross would look like this:
C c
C CC Cc
c Cc cc
The probability of producing a cc offspring is 25%, since there is only one cc genotype out of the four possible genotypes.
Two parents who are homozygous for a trait (TT) are crossed. What is the probability that they will produce a heterozygous offspring (Tt)?
The Punnett square for this cross would look like this:
T T
T TT TT
T TT TT
There is no possibility for a heterozygous offspring in this cross, so the probability is 0%.
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Consider the following situations, and determine when a simple stain should be used instead of a Gram stain. An unknown species of bacteria is being characterized and identified. A specimen is being examined in which the presence of multiple species of bacteria is suspected. A wound specimen is being examined. A microbiologist is trying to determine whether an organism has flagella.
A microbiologist is attempting to identify whether fungi or bacteria are present in a Gram stain. The entire organism is visualized and highlighted cellular forms or structures using a straightforward stain.
Why is Gram stain more crucial for identifying germs than a straightforward stain?Gram staining is valued higher than a straightforward staining approach for the following reasons: The type of bacterial cell is described. It serves as a means of identifying gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. aids in the identification of the specific organism when a sickness is present.
What distinguishes a simple stain from a differential stain?Differential staining helps identify distinct species of bacteria while simple staining simply makes the bacteria stand out from their surroundings.
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Where does reabsorption occur in the capillary bed?
Reabsorption occurs in the post-capillary venules of the capillary bed.
This is the process by which fluid, macromolecules, and other substances that were filtered out of the capillaries during filtration are reabsorbed back into the bloodstream. This is done via active transport, facilitated diffusion, and simple diffusion, depending on the substances being reabsorbed.A capillary is a tiny blood artery with a diameter of 5 to 10 micrometres (m). Only the tunica intima, a thin wall of simple squamous endothelial cells, makes up capillaries. They transport blood between the venules and arterioles and are the tiniest blood arteries in the body.
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Into which two subcategories can bulk transport be divided?
answer choices
a. Endocytosis and osmosis
b. Endocytosis and exocytosis
c. Exocytosis and passive transport
d. Osmosis and facilitated diffusion
Two subcategories can bulk transport be divided into are, option b.
b. Endocytosis and exocytosis
Bulk transport refers to the transportation of large macromolecules like proteins or polysaccharides into or out of the cell. Exocytosis and endocytosis, the two kinds of bulk transport, both involve the use of energy (ATP). Materials are exported from the cell during exocytosis using secretory vesicles. In this procedure, the transport vesicles that the Golgi complex packs macromolecules inside move to the plasma membrane and merge with it. The vesicle leaks its contents out of the cell as a result of this fusion. Exocytosis is crucial for the removal of trash from the cell and for the production of biological substances like hormones and digesting enzymes.
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What is behabioral ecology?
The study of animal behavior's evolutionary roots and how it interacts with the environment is known as behavioural ecology.
To comprehend the adaptive importance of behaviour, or the reasons for an animal's conduct, it takes into account behaviour, ecology, genetics, physiology, and evolution.
The primary focus of behavioural ecology is on the immediate mechanisms that result in behaviour as well as the underlying reasons of behaviour, such as natural selection.
It examines how environmental factors including predation, competition, food availability, and the presence of other species impact behaviour.
It also examines how actions have an impact on the ecosystem, including changes in resource availability, changes in habitat usage, and the spread of disease.
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8. Observe: Place the Weather probe at the land-sea boundary, and click Pause when the sea breeze is strongest. A. What do you notice in the sky at this time? B Click Play and then pause the simulation when the land breeze is strongest. What do you notice in
When the sea breeze is strongest, we will notice a change in cloud cover in the sky at this time.
When the land breeze is strongest. we will notice clearer skies and possibly a drop in temperature.
What is the difference between sea and land breeze?Sea breezes and land breezes are caused by the differences in temperature between the land and sea. What we can notice in the sky when these breezes are strongest are as follow:
When the sea breeze is strongest:
Typically during the daytime, you may notice a change in cloud cover. As the warm air from the land rises, it creates an area of low pressure that draws in the cooler air from over the sea. This can cause a line of clouds to form along the coast as the two air masses converge. You may also notice a shift in wind direction and speed as the sea breeze sets in.
When the land breeze is strongest:
Typically during the nighttime, you may notice clearer skies and possibly a drop in temperature. As the land cools faster than the sea, the warm air over the sea rises and cooler air from over the land moves out to replace it. This can cause a decrease in cloud cover and a shift in wind direction as the land breeze sets in.
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What are three functions of simple columnar epithelium?
Specifically, secretion, excretion, and absorption are the three functions that the simple columnar epithelium plays.
Organization and function A single layer of tall, thin columnar epithelial cells with oval-shaped nuclei situated in the basal region and connected to the basement membrane makes up simple columnar epithelium. The majority of the human digestive tract's organs, including the stomach and intestines, are lined by simple columnar epithelium.Uncomplicated columnar epithelium: The apical cilia or microvilli of this type of epithelium are frequently adapted for absorption. These cells cover the lining of your intestines and stomach.Simple columnar epithelium is made up of a single layer of cells that are taller than they are wide, with an oval nucleus that is typically found at the basal part of the cell. The cells of this organism, as its name implies, areFor more information on simple columnar epithelium kindly visit to
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What main class of organic compounds are enzymes in?
Enzymes are a sort of protein that acts as a biological catalyst, speeding up chemical reactions.
They are a significant class of chemical substances that fall under the macromolecule umbrella, along with lipids, nucleic acids, and carbohydrates. Amino acids, which are tiny molecules that combine in various ways to make bigger proteins, are the building blocks of enzymes.
An enzyme's distinctive activity and capacity to interact with other molecules in the body are determined by the precise amino acid sequence that makes up the enzyme. Many of the body's biochemical activities, including digestion, metabolism, and energy generation, depend on enzymes.
Additionally, they have a role in DNA replication, cell signalling, and the synthesis of several hormones and enzymes. Many of the chemical processes that take place in the body would be excessively sluggish or not take place at all without enzymes.
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