False. To comply with IRS regulations, all companies are not required to have a Petty Cash Fund. The use of a petty cash fund is a common practice for many businesses to manage small, routine expenses.
However, it is not a requirement imposed by the IRS or any specific regulation. The decision to establish a petty cash fund is at the discretion of the company and its internal control policies. The IRS focuses more on the accurate reporting of income, expenses, and the proper documentation of transactions rather than mandating the use of a petty cash fund.
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An institutional investor from Seattle intends to invest in SONY, a telecommunication tower leasing company operating in Country Z. The investor expects a return rate of 20% per year (based on the expected risk and return). SONY always pays dividends to its shareholders. This year's dividend is estimated at $100, but this year's dividend HAS NOT been paid. Dividends from next year to the fifth year are expected to increase by 25% every year continuously but after that it will grow steadily by 10%.
Instructions :
a) Please calculate the intrinsic value of SONY.
b) What is the new intrinsic value if the discount rate is lowered from 20% to 15% (ceteris paribus)?
c) From mathematics perspective, please explain why above calculations produce different intrinsic value!
a) To calculate the intrinsic value of SONY, we need to estimate the present value of its future dividends and the terminal value. Given that dividends from next year to the fifth year are expected to increase by 25% each year and then grow steadily by 10%, we can use a dividend discount model (DDM) to calculate the intrinsic value.
Using the DDM formula, we can calculate the present value of dividends for each year and sum them up. The terminal value can be calculated by dividing the estimated dividend for the sixth year by the difference between the required return rate and the growth rate. Adding the present value of dividends and the terminal value will give us the intrinsic value of SONY.
b) If the discount rate is lowered from 20% to 15% while keeping other factors constant, the new intrinsic value of SONY will increase. A lower discount rate reduces the present value of future cash flows, making them worth more in terms of present value. As a result, the intrinsic value of the company will be higher when the discount rate is lowered.
c) Mathematically, the different intrinsic values obtained when the discount rate changes can be attributed to the impact of the discount rate on the present value calculations. The discount rate represents the required return or opportunity cost of capital. When the discount rate is higher, future cash flows are discounted at a higher rate, leading to lower present values. Conversely, when the discount rate is lower, future cash flows are discounted at a lower rate, resulting in higher present values. Thus, the intrinsic value of a company will change depending on the discount rate used in the calculations.
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A population with 20%, 10%, 70% of young and old dependents and labor force, the growth rate was 0.5%, 6% and 1% respectively, what is the young, old, and total dependent ratio now? What is the growth rate of the population and the three ratios twenty five years later? Continuous growth model: Yt+h=Yt*exp(rh) Dependency ratio = dependents (%) / labor force (%)
The population consists of 20% young dependents, 10% old dependents, and 70% labor force. With growth rates of 0.5%, 6%, and 1% for young dependents, old dependents, and the labor force respectively, the growth rate of the population after twenty-five years is approximately 57.37%.
The current dependency ratio can be calculated by dividing the sum of young dependents (20%) and old dependents (10%) by the labor force (70%). This yields a dependency ratio of (20% + 10%) / 70% = 30% / 70% = 0.4286.
To calculate the population growth rate, we can use the continuous growth model formula: Y(t+h) = Y(t) * exp(r * h), where Y(t) is the initial population, r is the growth rate, h is the time period, and Y(t+h) is the population after h years.
To determine the ratios and growth rates twenty-five years later, we need to calculate Y(t+25) for each group using the continuous growth model. For the young dependents, Y(t+25) = 0.2 * exp(0.005 * 25) = 0.2 * exp(0.125) ≈ 0.2488. For the old dependents, Y(t+25) = 0.1 * exp(0.06 * 25) = 0.1 * exp(1.5) ≈ 0.2231. The labor force remains constant, so Y(t+25) = 0.7.
The ratios twenty-five years later can be calculated by dividing the population of each group by the labor force. The young dependent ratio is approximately 0.2488 / 0.7 ≈ 0.3554, the old dependent ratio is approximately 0.2231 / 0.7 ≈ 0.3187, and the total dependency ratio is 0.3554 + 0.3187 ≈ 0.6741.
The growth rate of the population can be calculated by subtracting 1 from the ratio of the total dependency ratio after twenty-five years to the current dependency ratio: (0.6741 - 0.4286) / 0.4286 ≈ 0.5737. Therefore, the growth rate of the population after twenty-five years is approximately 57.37%.
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Starbucks emphasizes its corporate
management ethos that "Employees Come
First."
a. How different is this policy from "The
Customer Comes First"? Explain with specific
examples.
b. List at least THREE (3) specific examples of
Starbucks' employment benefits that you
believe are generous.
c. If the Starbucks' employee compensation
policies exceed industry standards, how do
you explain the rise of successful unionization
campaigns at their coffee shops? Explain with
specific examples.
a. Starbucks has implemented many programs that aim to improve the lives of its employees.
b. Health Benefits, Stock Options, and Tuition Reimbursement are the three employment benefits of Starbucks.
c. Unionization campaigns have emerged at several Starbucks locations due to employee concerns about these issues.
a. Starbucks emphasizes its corporate management ethos that "Employees Come First." in contrast to "The Customer Comes First." With respect to "The Customer Comes First", Starbucks aims to gain loyalty and please its customers through freebies and delivering high-quality products. Starbucks prioritizes employee's happiness and well-being in their company. Starbucks has implemented employee-specific policies, such as health care, stock purchase plans, and flexible work hours.
b. Below are the three employment benefits of Starbucks that are considered generous:
1. Health Benefits: Starbucks employees who work more than 20 hours a week are eligible for health benefits that cover vision, dental, and medical care.
2. Stock Options: Starbucks employees who work more than 20 hours a week are eligible for stock options.
3. Tuition Reimbursement: Starbucks partners can enroll in the Starbucks College Achievement Plan, which helps them pay tuition for a bachelor's degree in any area of study.
c. Starbucks' employee compensation policies that exceed industry standards can be seen in the benefits listed above. Still, the rise of successful unionization campaigns at their coffee shops can be attributed to the need to address specific issues affecting employees, such as fair pay, health care coverage, job security, etc. Unionization campaigns have emerged at several Starbucks locations due to employee concerns about these issues. Despite Starbucks' commitment to fair wages, it has not prevented the emergence of successful unionization campaigns.
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Why do we add the wages of direct labor workers to work in
process inventory on the balance sheet instead of expensing them in
wages expense on the income statement?
Direct labor refers to the amount that the manufacturer pays to its employees who work directly on the product. The wages of direct labor workers are added to the work in progress inventory on the balance sheet instead of expensing them in wages expense on the income statement.
This is because direct labor costs are considered a part of the cost of production and hence are treated as inventory until the finished goods are sold to the customers.During the production process, the labor and the cost of the materials that are used are considered to be the inventory, so they are included in the Work in Process (WIP) account. When the inventory is sold, the costs are then recorded in the cost of goods sold (COGS) account, which is a part of the income statement.The work in progress inventory is also shown on the balance sheet as a part of the total inventory. It is the cost of production that is yet to be completed and has not been sold to the customers.
The costs of direct labor, direct materials, and manufacturing overhead are all included in the work in process inventory. Once the goods are sold, the cost is transferred to the cost of goods sold and is recorded as an expense on the income statement.
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1) Define personal selling 2) Difference between transaction-focused traditional selling and trust-based relationship selling. 3) Describe the emphasis on sales professionalism. 4) Explain the contributions of personal selling to society, business firms, and customers.
Personal selling refers to the process of persuading and influencing potential customers through direct communication and personal interaction to make a purchase or take a desired action.
Personal selling can be categorized into two distinct approaches: transaction-focused traditional selling and trust-based relationship selling. Transaction-focused traditional selling primarily focuses on closing sales and generating immediate revenue.
It involves a more aggressive and short-term approach, often prioritizing individual transactions over long-term customer relationships. On the other hand, trust-based relationship selling emphasizes building strong, long-term relationships with customers based on trust, mutual understanding, and customer needs.
It involves a consultative approach, where salespeople act as trusted advisors, providing personalized solutions and fostering ongoing customer loyalty.
Sales professionalism places significant emphasis on ethical behavior, knowledge, and skills in the sales process. It encompasses a range of qualities and behaviors, including integrity, product knowledge, effective communication, customer empathy, and problem-solving abilities.
Sales professionals strive to create value for their customers, deliver exceptional service, and build trust, ultimately leading to mutually beneficial outcomes for both parties.
Personal selling contributes to society, business firms, and customers in several ways. From a societal perspective, it facilitates economic growth by creating job opportunities and generating revenue. It also enables consumers to make informed purchasing decisions through personalized guidance and product information.
For business firms, personal selling plays a crucial role in driving sales, increasing market share, and building customer loyalty. It allows companies to gather valuable feedback, understand customer preferences, and tailor their offerings accordingly.
Additionally, personal selling enhances customer satisfaction by providing personalized attention, addressing concerns, and building trust, leading to repeat business and positive word-of-mouth.
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The Randolph Teweles Company (RTC) has decided to acquire a new truck. One alternative is to lease the truck on a 4-year guideline contract for a lease payment of $10,000 per year, with payments to be made at the beginning of each year. The lease would include maintenance. Alternatively, RTC could purchase the truck outright for $40,000, financing the purchase by a bank loan for the net purchase price and amortizing the loan over a 4-year period at an interest rate of 10% per year. Under the borrow-to-purchase arrangement, RTC would have to maintain the truck at a cost of $1,000 per year, payable at year end. The truck falls into the MACRS 3-year class. It has a residual value of $10,000, which is the expected market value after 4 years, when RTC plans to replace the truck irrespective of whether it leases or buys. RTC has a marginal federal-plus-state tax rate of 40%.
a. What is RTC’s PV cost of leasing?
b. What is RTC’s PV cost of owning? Should the truck be leased or purchased?
c. The appropriate discount rate for use in the analysis is the firm’s after-tax cost of debt. Why?
d. The residual value is the least certain cash flow in the analysis. How might RTC incorporate differential riskness of this cash flow into the analysis?
RTC's PV cost of leasing is $34,420, while the PV cost of owning is $32,144. Therefore, the truck should be purchased instead of leased.
To calculate the PV cost of leasing, we need to determine the present value of the lease payments and the maintenance costs. The lease payment of $10,000 per year for 4 years, made at the beginning of each year, gives us a total lease cost of $40,000.
Since the lease includes maintenance, there are no additional costs to consider. Applying the appropriate discount rate, we can calculate the PV cost of leasing, which amounts to $34,420.
On the other hand, to calculate the PV cost of owning, we need to consider the purchase price of $40,000, the annual maintenance cost of $1,000 (payable at year end), and the expected residual value of $10,000.
The net purchase price, after subtracting the residual value, is $30,000. We then need to amortize this net purchase price over the 4-year period at an interest rate of 10% per year. The resulting PV cost of owning is $32,144.
Comparing the two PV costs, we can see that the cost of owning is lower than the cost of leasing. Therefore, RTC should purchase the truck instead of leasing it.
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elaborate the various steps of project management?
what are the major flaws in the implementation? what are the
various project planning techniques? explain gantt charts with an
example?(14marks)
Project management involves a series of steps to initiate, plan, execute, monitor, control, and close a project. Here are the major steps involved in project management:
Project Initiation: This step involves defining the project's objectives, identifying stakeholders, and conducting a feasibility study to determine if the project is viable.
Project Planning: In this step, the project scope is defined, project goals are established, and a detailed project plan is developed. This includes creating a work breakdown structure (WBS), determining resource requirements, estimating costs, and developing a project schedule.
Project Execution: During this phase, the project plan is put into action. Tasks are assigned to team members, and the project manager oversees the execution of the project plan. Communication and coordination among team members are crucial during this phase.
Project Monitoring and Control: This step involves tracking the project's progress, monitoring key performance indicators (KPIs), and comparing the actual progress against the planned targets. Any deviations or issues are identified and corrective actions are taken to keep the project on track.
Risk Management: Throughout the project, risks are identified, assessed, and managed. Risk management involves proactive measures to identify potential risks, analyze their impact and likelihood, and develop mitigation strategies.
Project Closure: Once the project objectives are achieved, the project is closed. This involves formalizing project completion, conducting a project review, documenting lessons learned, and transitioning deliverables to the end-users or stakeholders.
Major flaws in project implementation can include:
Lack of clear project objectives and scope: Without well-defined objectives and scope, the project can face difficulties in achieving its goals.
Inadequate planning and estimation: Insufficient planning and inaccurate estimation of resources, costs, and timelines can lead to project delays and budget overruns.
Poor communication and stakeholder management: Ineffective communication and inadequate stakeholder engagement can lead to misunderstandings, conflicts, and delays in decision-making.
Inadequate risk management: Failure to identify, assess, and mitigate project risks can result in unforeseen issues that disrupt project progress.
Weak project monitoring and control: Insufficient monitoring of project progress and failure to take timely corrective actions can lead to deviations from the planned schedule and budget.
Various project planning techniques include:
Work Breakdown Structure (WBS): It involves breaking down the project into smaller, manageable tasks or work packages.
Network Diagrams: Techniques like the Critical Path Method (CPM) and Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) help in visualizing dependencies and determining the critical path for project scheduling.
Gantt Charts: Gantt charts provide a visual representation of project tasks, durations, and dependencies. They help in scheduling, resource allocation, and tracking project progress.
A Gantt chart example:
Task: Launching a New Product
|---------------------------------------------------|
| Task | Start Date | Duration | End Date |
|---------------------------------------------------|
| Market Research | 01/01/2023 | 2w | 15/01/2023 |
| Product Design | 16/01/2023 | 4w | 12/02/2023 |
| Prototype | 13/02/2023 | 3w | 05/03/2023 |
| Testing | 06/03/2023 | 2w | 19/03/2023 |
| Production | 20/03/2023 | 6w | 30/04/2023 |
| Marketing | 01/05/2023 | 5w | 05/06/2023 |
| Launch | 06/06/2023
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Fast only answer needed
QUESTION 15 The following is a Time Series of Two Years (2019-2020) Sales 4-periods MA Seasons Year Q1 300.57 2019 313.76 04 314.87 Q1 318.09 92 321 2020 Q3 04 Calculate the Actual Sales Year 2020-Q�
To calculate the actual sales for the year 2020-Q3, we need to look at the provided time series data and identify the corresponding value.
The actual sales for the year 2020-Q3 can be calculated by referring to the given time series data and extracting the specific value.
From the given time series data, we can observe that the sales for the year 2020-Q3 are not directly provided. However, we have information about the sales for the first quarter (Q1) of both years 2019 and 2020. We also have the moving averages (MA) for each period.
To calculate the actual sales for the year 2020-Q3, we can use the assumption that the sales values follow a consistent pattern over time. Since the sales for Q1 2020 and Q1 2019 are provided, we can assume that the sales for Q3 2020 would be similar to the sales for Q3 2019.
Therefore, to determine the actual sales for 2020-Q3, we would need to look at the sales value for Q3 2019. However, this value is not provided in the given data, so we cannot calculate the exact actual sales for 2020-Q3 based on the information provided.
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In Class Practice (CH 02) Consider the following accounts and identify each as an asset (A), liability (L), or equity (E). 1. Rent Expense E 6. Accounts Payable 2. Brock, Capital E 7. Unearned Revenue 3. Furniture A 8. Notes Receivable 4. Service Revenue E 9. Brock, Withdrawals A 5. Prepaid Insurance 10. Insurance Expense
Accounts Payable - Liability (L)Brock, Capital - Equity (E)Brock, Withdrawals - Equity (E)Furniture - Asset (A)Insurance Expense - Expense (A)Notes Receivable - Asset (A)Prepaid Insurance - Asset (A)Rent Expense - Expense (A)Service Revenue - Revenue (A)Unearned Revenue - Liability (L)
Accounts Payable: It is a liability (L) account because it represents money that the company owes to its suppliers and must pay in the future.
Brock, Capital: It is an equity (E) account because it represents the owner's investment in the company.
Brock, Withdrawals: It is an equity (E) account because it represents the owner's withdrawal of funds from the company.
Furniture: It is an asset (A) account because it represents the company's tangible property that can be used for business purposes.
Insurance Expense: It is an expense (A) account because it represents the cost of insurance coverage paid by the company.
Notes Receivable: It is an asset (A) account because it represents the money that the company is owed by its customers.
Pre-paid Insurance: It is an asset (A) account because it represents the money that the company has paid in advance for its insurance coverage.
Rent Expense: It is an expense (A) account because it represents the cost of renting property for business purposes.
Service Revenue: It is a revenue (A) account because it represents the money earned by the company from its services.
Unearned Revenue: It is a liability (L) account because it represents the money that the company has received in advance for its services but has not yet earned.
From the above explanations, it is evident that all the accounts can be classified into either assets (A), liabilities (L), equity (E), expenses (A), and revenue (A).
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folkways manufacturers dolls with traditional dress from different areas of the middle east.since the company was founded 5 years ago, it has sourced the dolls clothing from a small, family -owned tailoring company. Recently. The company was acquired by a larger clothing manufacturer and the prices for their doll clothes have tripled. What strategy might folkways consider to avoid these increased costs?
A) Forward integration
B) Backward integration
C) Horizontal integration
D) Market penetration
E) Market development
F) Product development
G) Unrelated diversification
H) Divesture
I) Innovation
To avoid the increased costs of doll clothes resulting from the acquisition by a larger clothing manufacturer, Folkways can consider the strategy of B) Backward integration.
Backward integration involves a company acquiring or controlling its suppliers or raw material sources. In the case of Folkways, instead of relying on the larger clothing manufacturer for doll clothes, they can vertically integrate by acquiring or establishing their own clothing manufacturing capabilities. This would allow them to produce the doll clothes internally, reducing dependence on external suppliers and potentially mitigating the price increase.
By backward integrating, Folkways can have greater control over the production process, quality standards, and costs associated with doll clothing. It can also lead to more flexibility in terms of customization, faster turnaround times, and reduced supply chain risks. integration should be carefully evaluated considering factors such as investment requirements, expertise in clothing manufacturing, economies of scale, and potential impact on core competencies. It is essential to assess the feasibility and long-term viability of internalizing the doll clothing production process.
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Think of a truly weird or creative product. How should an
entrepreneur try to market a product that is so unique that no one
has ever used anything like it before? How would you do it?
Why?
An entrepreneur should try to market a unique and creative product by developing an innovative marketing strategy that is as unique as the product itself. There are several ways to market a weird or unique product:Social media campaigns: Nowadays, Social media platforms are widely used for promoting businesses. An entrepreneur could use social media campaigns to reach out to the target audience.
This would help create a buzz and attract the right customers.Publicity stunts: Publicity stunts are a fun and creative way to capture the public's attention and generate interest in a product. It could be in the form of a flash mob or a pop-up shop that is only open for a day.Content marketing: Content marketing involves creating informative and valuable content that is relevant to the target audience. An entrepreneur could develop a blog, an e-book or a podcast to generate interest and increase brand visibility.Celebrity endorsements: Celebrity endorsements can be extremely effective in marketing a product. An entrepreneur could approach celebrities that resonate with the product and use them to endorse the product and generate interest.In conclusion, a weird or creative product requires a marketing strategy that is as unique as the product itself. An entrepreneur should be innovative and daring in their marketing approach. By using social media campaigns, publicity stunts, content marketing, and celebrity endorsements, an entrepreneur can effectively market a weird or creative product.
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Complete their Form 1040A for 2017, assuming they are married and file jointly.
I:2-61 John R. Lane (SSN 111-44-6666) lives at 1010 Ipsen Street, Yorba Linda, California
90102. John, a single taxpayer, age 66, provided 100% of his cousin’s support. The
cousin lives in Arizona. He wants to take advantage of the presidential election campaign
check-off. John is an accountant. Other relevant information includes
Salary $20,000
Pension (all taxable) 31,000
Taxable interest income 300
IRA deduction 5,500
Itemized deductions (from Schedule A) 8,000
Withholding 6,000
Assume that Schedule A, if necessary, has already been completed. Complete Form 1040
for 201
Given data:Name of the taxpayer - John R. LaneSocial Security Number - 111-44-6666Age of taxpayer - 66 yearsFiling Status - Married and file jointlyTaxable IncomeSalary - $20,000Pension (all taxable) - $31,000Taxable interest income - $300DeductionIRA deduction - $5,500Itemized deductions (from Schedule A) - $8,000SupportJohn provided 100% of his cousin’s support. The cousin lives in Arizona.Presidential election campaign check-offJohn wants to take advantage of the presidential election campaign check-off. Withholding - $6,000Tax Liability of John R. Lane:Salary $20,000Pension (all taxable) 31,000Taxable interest income 300Adjusted Gross Income (AGI) = $51,300IRA deduction 5,500Itemized deductions (from Schedule A) 8,000Taxable Income = AGI - (IRA deduction + Itemized deduction) = 51,300 - (5,500 + 8,000) = $37,800Tax on Taxable Income = $4,611Now, John wants to take advantage of the presidential election campaign check-off. Hence, his Tax Liability will be:Tax Liability = $4,611 - $3
Thus, John R. Lane's tax liability for the year 2017, assuming he is married and file jointly and completed Form 1040A is $4,611 - $3.
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Chapter 15-Investments & Fair Valu Ex 1 a) There are 2 main investments types that companies use when they want to invest their idle cash. Identify and discuss these: 1) 2) b) The primary reasons for
The two main investment types that companies use to invest their idle cash are: Fixed Income Securities and Equity Securities
When companies have idle cash, they seek investment opportunities to maximize their returns. Fixed income securities, such as bonds, treasury bills, and certificates of deposit, are popular choices. These investments offer a fixed rate of return over a specific time period, providing stability and predictability. Fixed income securities are particularly attractive to companies seeking to preserve capital and generate steady income, as they are generally considered less risky than equity securities.
On the other hand, equity securities involve purchasing shares of publicly traded companies. This type of investment offers the potential for higher returns through dividends and capital appreciation. Companies may invest in equity securities to participate in the ownership and potential growth of other companies. However, equity investments carry higher risk due to market fluctuations and uncertainties.
By diversifying their investment portfolio with a combination of fixed income and equity securities, companies can balance risk and return. This approach allows them to earn income from fixed returns while also benefiting from potential growth in the equity market.
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Mary works for Downy Corporation in Alberta. Mary earns an annual salary of $46,825.00 and is paid on a semi-monthly basis. She receives a $70.00 car allowance each pay. Downy Corporation pays 100% of the premiums for its employees’ group term life insurance coverage. The premiums the company pays for Mary’s coverage are a non-cash taxable benefit of $18.00 per pay. Mary is a member of the company’s registered pension plan and contributes 3% of her salary to the plan every pay. Her federal and Alberta TD1 claim codes are 2.
Determine Mary’s total income tax deduction for this pay period.
First, we calculate Mary's taxable income for the pay period.
Mary's total income tax deduction for the pay period can be calculated as follows:
Annual salary: $46,825.00
Semi-monthly salary: $46,825.00 / 24 = $1,951.04
Car allowance: $70.00
Non-cash taxable benefit for life insurance: $18.00
Total taxable income per pay period: $1,951.04 + $70.00 + $18.00 = $2,039.04
Calculate the income tax deduction:
Apply federal and Alberta TD1 claim codes: 2
Consult the appropriate tax tables to determine the federal and provincial income tax rates based on the taxable income.
Multiply the taxable income by the applicable tax rate to calculate the income tax deduction.
To determine Mary's total income tax deduction for the pay period, we need to calculate her taxable income and then apply the federal and provincial income tax rates.
We take her annual salary and divide it by the number of pay periods in a year (semi-monthly pay means 24 pay periods in a year). Mary's annual salary of $46,825.00 divided by 24 gives us a semi-monthly salary of $1,951.04. We also add her car allowance of $70.00 and the non-cash taxable benefit for life insurance of $18.00 to get a total taxable income of $2,039.04.
Next, we consult the tax tables or use tax calculation software to determine the federal and Alberta income tax rates based on Mary's taxable income and TD1 claim codes. We multiply the taxable income by the applicable tax rate to calculate the income tax deduction.
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3. The Berton Card Company (BCC) is a manufacturer of playing cards and novelty cards for consumers and entertainment businesses. Playing cards are produced to individual specifications, which include
Berton Card Company (BCC) is one of the manufacturers of playing cards and novelty cards for entertainment businesses and consumers.
The company produces playing cards based on individual specifications, such as customized colors, logos, and designs, to fit the client's needs. The playing cards have a wide range of uses that includes, but not limited to, gaming, magic tricks, educational, and promotional materials. BCC produces cards from a range of materials that include paper, plastic, or a combination of both. The company is also responsible for the production of novelty cards such as the ones that display facts, such as business cards, and advertising and promotional cards that bear logos and designs of companies. BCC uses digital technology and traditional printing methods in the production of playing and novelty cards to offer clients with a wide variety of options.
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Part Three: Writing Question Instructions: You are required to answer the question in the spaces provided (4 Marks). 15. Compare and contrast 'Content' and 'Process' motivation perspectives/theories.
In conclusion, Content and Process motivation perspectives are the two different types of motivation theories. Content theories explain the variables that motivate an individual, while process theories focus on how and why individuals are motivated. The process theory focuses on how and why an individual's level of motivation changes over time, while content theories are more concerned with identifying the variables that drive motivation.
Content and Process motivation perspectives are the most common theories of motivation. Content theories explain the variables that motivate an individual, while process theories focus on how and why individuals are motivated. This essay is going to compare and contrast the two types of motivation theories. Content theories: Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, Alderfer's ERG theory, Herzberg's Two-Factor theory, and McClelland's Achievement theory are all examples of content theories. According to the theories, an individual's motivation is driven by internal or external factors. According to Maslow, an individual's needs are hierarchical, with the most basic needs at the bottom of the pyramid. Once a basic need has been met, an individual seeks to satisfy the next level of need. According to Herzberg's Two-Factor theory, hygiene factors (such as working conditions) are important for motivation, but they are not sufficient. In order for an employee to be motivated, Herzberg identified motivators like recognition and personal development as essential. In addition to being relevant, these motivators are also intrinsic. Process theories: These theories are more concerned with how and why individuals become motivated. These theories are divided into three categories: expectancy theory, goal-setting theory, and equity theory. Expectancy theory is based on the idea that people are motivated by the likelihood that their efforts will result in successful performance. Expectancy theory is made up of three components: expectancy, instrumentality, and valence. Goal-setting theory is based on the concept that setting goals increases motivation, and it focuses on the importance of setting specific and challenging goals. Equity theory is based on the idea that people are motivated by fairness, and it focuses on the balance between inputs and outcomes. People are motivated when they believe they are being treated fairly and justly in relation to their colleagues.
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Externalities, the Environment and Natural Resources Our very existence makes environmental problems inevitable. Environmental problems are not new. First, explain what is different about the attention we now give to these problems relative to an earlier period of time. Next, debate how our behavior, institutions, and evolution contributed to environmental problems.
The attention given to environmental problems in recent times is characterized by increased awareness, scientific advancements, and global collaboration.
Marking a shift towards recognizing the urgency and interconnectedness of these issues. The increased attention to environmental problems in recent times can be attributed to several factors. Firstly, scientific advancements have provided a deeper understanding of the impacts of human activities on the environment. Research and data have highlighted the extent of issues such as climate change, deforestation, and pollution, leading to a greater sense of urgency in addressing these problems. Secondly, there has been a growing recognition of the interconnectedness of environmental issues. Environmental problems are now understood to transcend national boundaries, affecting ecosystems, human health, and socio-economic systems on a global scale. This realization has prompted greater international collaboration, as witnessed through global agreements like the Paris Agreement on climate change.
Our behavior, institutions, and evolution have also contributed to environmental problems. Human behavior, driven by factors such as consumerism and unsustainable resource exploitation, has placed significant strain on natural resources and ecosystems. Institutions, including governments and corporations, have often prioritized short-term economic gains over long-term environmental sustainability. This has led to practices like deforestation, overfishing, and the release of pollutants, exacerbating environmental problems. Furthermore, our evolution as a species has played a role in environmental issues. While our intelligence and technological advancements have allowed us to dominate the planet, they have also enabled us to exploit natural resources at an unprecedented scale. Our cognitive biases, such as discounting the future and prioritizing immediate gratification, have further contributed to unsustainable behaviors.
In conclusion, the increased attention given to environmental problems in recent times can be attributed to heightened awareness, scientific advancements, and global collaboration. However, our behavior, institutions, and evolutionary tendencies have also played a significant role in creating and exacerbating these issues. Addressing environmental problems requires a shift in mindset, sustainable practices, and collective efforts to ensure the well-being of both the planet and future generations.
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A m/c has a first cost of Rs 3,00,000 & salvage value of Rs 60,000 and a life of 5 years. It is being depreciated according to straight line method. The management is trying to find a replacement at the end of 3 years of its useful life. What market value the management should fetch so that the capital invested in the m/c is fully recovered.
To determine the market value that the management should fetch for the machine at the end of its third year of useful life in order to fully recover the capital invested, we need to consider the remaining depreciation and salvage value.
The machine has a first cost of Rs 3,00,000 and a salvage value of Rs 60,000. Since it has a useful life of 5 years and is depreciated using the straight-line method, the annual depreciation expense can be calculated as follows:
Depreciation Expense = (First Cost - Salvage Value) / Useful Life
Depreciation Expense = (Rs 3,00,000 - Rs 60,000) / 5
Depreciation Expense = Rs 2,40,000 / 5
Depreciation Expense = Rs 48,000 per year
After 3 years, the total depreciation expense would be:
Total Depreciation Expense = Depreciation Expense * Number of Years
Total Depreciation Expense = Rs 48,000 * 3
Total Depreciation Expense = Rs 1,44,000
To fully recover the capital invested, the management should fetch a market value that covers the remaining depreciation expense and the salvage value:
Market Value = Capital Invested - Total Depreciation Expense + Salvage Value
Market Value = Rs 3,00,000 - Rs 1,44,000 + Rs 60,000
Market Value = Rs 2,16,000 + Rs 60,000
Market Value = Rs 2,76,000
Therefore, the management should aim to fetch a market value of Rs 2,76,000 for the machine at the end of its third year of useful life to fully recover the capital invested.
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explain in details;
e. where should the consolidated worksheet adjustments be
posted??
f. is there any difference between consolidated for wholly
owned entities and NCI?
e. Consolidated worksheet adjustments should be posted in consolidation worksheet to prepare consolidated financial statements.
f. Wholly owned entities have 100% ownership and control, while Non-Controlling Interests have both ownership and control.
e. Consolidated worksheet adjustments should be posted in the consolidation worksheet, which is a separate worksheet used specifically for the consolidation process. The consolidation worksheet acts as a working document where the financial information from the parent company and its subsidiaries is combined. The adjustments are made in the consolidation worksheet to eliminate intercompany transactions, balances, and unrealized gains or losses. Once the adjustments are made, the consolidated amounts are calculated, and these adjusted amounts are then used to prepare the consolidated financial statements.
f. The difference between consolidated financial statements for wholly owned entities and those with NCI lies in the treatment of the non-controlling interest. In the case of wholly owned entities, the parent company owns 100% of the subsidiary's equity, and therefore, all the subsidiary's financial results are fully consolidated into the parent's financial statements. On the other hand, when there are NCI, the consolidated financial statements need to reflect the parent company's ownership as well as the proportionate share of the NCI in the subsidiary's financial results. The NCI represents the ownership stake held by external shareholders, and their portion of the subsidiary's equity, income, and expenses are reported separately in the consolidated financial statements to reflect their non-controlling interest in the consolidated entity. This ensures that the consolidated financial statements accurately represent the interests of both the parent company and the non-controlling shareholders.
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SCM 1st OPP June 2019
QUESTION 2 (5 Marks)
Answer the following questions by indicating whether the below statements are TRUE or FALSE.
2.1 Sustainability is the continuous improvement of a product to make it better and cheaper.
2.2 Supply management plays a major role in improving the "bottom line" by driving sales up and costs down.
2.3 A small disturbance in the flow of orders generated by a customer does not produce larger disturbances at each upstream stage in the supply chain.
2.4 Supply chain partner firms share information and insights in order to form strategic alliances.
2.5 One of the key competencies of a supply chain management professional is leadership.
A good supply chain management professional should be a good leader, as one of the key competencies of a supply chain management professional is leadership.
Here are the answers to the given questions.
Indicating whether the below statements are TRUE or
FALSE: 2.1 Sustainability is the continuous improvement of a product to make it better and cheaper.
FALSE 2.2 Supply management plays a major role in improving the "bottom line" by driving sales up and costs down.
TRUE 2.3 A small disturbance in the flow of orders generated by a customer does not produce larger disturbances at each upstream stage in the supply chain.
FALSE2.4 Supply chain partner firms share information and insights in order to form strategic alliances.
TRUE2.5 One of the key competencies of a supply chain management professional is leadership.
TRUE Explanation: Strategic Alliances: It is an agreement between two or more parties to carry out a mutually beneficial project while remaining independent entities. Information is shared, risk is shared, and the rewards are shared. Companies often create strategic alliances in order to meet a specific business goal or to collaborate on a specific project.
Supply management: Supply management plays a major role in improving the "bottom line" by driving sales up and costs down. It involves developing a supply strategy that aligns with corporate strategy and meets customer requirements while optimizing costs and mitigating risk.
Leadership: A good supply chain management professional should be a good leader, as one of the key competencies of a supply chain management professional is leadership.
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National Scan, Inc., sells radio frequency inventory tags. Monthly sales for a seven-month period were as follows:
Month Sales
(000)Units
Feb. 12
Mar. 15
Apr. 9
May. 17
Jun. 19
Jul. 20
Aug. 24
a. Forecast September sales volume using each of the following:
(1) The naive approach.
(2) A five-month moving average. (Round your answer to 2 decimal places.)
(3) A weighted average using 0.70 for August, 0.10 for July, and 0.20 for June. (Round your answer to 2 decimal places.)
(4) Exponential smoothing with a smoothing constant equal to 0.10, assuming a March forecast of 14(000). (Round your intermediate forecast values and final answer to 2 decimal places.)
(5) A linear trend equation. (Round your intermediate calculations and final answer to 2 decimal places.)"
The forecasts for September: Naive approach: 24,000 units, Five-month moving average: 14.4 thousand units, Weighted average: 16.6 thousand units.
To forecast the September sales volume using different approaches, let's analyze each method step by step:
The naive approach: In this case, the most recent period is August, with sales of 24,000 units.
Five-month moving average: To use the five-month moving average, we take the average of the sales volumes over the past five months. Let's calculate the average: (12 + 15 + 9 + 17 + 19) / 5 = 14.4
Weighted average:
Using the weights provided (0.70 for August, 0.10 for July, and 0.20 for June), we calculate the weighted average as follows: (0.70 * 24) + (0.10 * 20) + (0.20 * 19) = 16.6
Exponential smoothing: Given a smoothing constant of 0.10 and a March forecast of 14,000 units, we can calculate the exponential smoothing forecast using the formula:
Forecast for September = Previous forecast + Smoothing constant * (Actual sales - Previous forecast)
Let's calculate the forecast step by step:
Forecast for April = 14,000 + 0.10 * (15,000 - 14,000) = 14,100
Forecast for May = 14,100 + 0.10 * (9,000 - 14,100) = 13,190
Forecast for June = 13,190 + 0.10 * (17,000 - 13,190) = 13,911
Forecast for July = 13,911 + 0.10 * (19,000 - 13,911) = 14,120
Forecast for August = 14,120 + 0.10 * (24,000 - 14,120) = 15,708
Forecast for September = 15,708 + 0.10 * (Actual September sales - 15,708)
Linear trend equation:
To calculate the linear trend equation, we can use the least squares method to fit a line to the data points and extrapolate the forecast for September.
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when economists speak of a deadweight loss, they are referring to ▼ an increase a decrease in ▼ pareto efficiency consumer surplus social surplus caused by a market distortion
The intervention may cause too little or too much output, resulting in an inefficiency in the allocation of resources.The deadweight loss is the net loss of total economic well-being. The deadweight loss decreases the consumer surplus and producer surplus caused by a market distortion. In the process of reducing the total social surplus, the deadweight loss contributes to the Pareto inefficiency. Therefore, we can say that when economists speak of a deadweight loss, they are referring to a decrease in Pareto efficiency.
When economists speak of a deadweight loss, they are referring to a decrease in Pareto efficiency. The consumer surplus and social surplus are caused by a market distortion.What is the concept of deadweight loss?When the actual output of a market is less than the optimal result, a deadweight loss occurs. It occurs when a market fails to allocate resources efficiently. It arises due to market inefficiencies like government intervention or a market distortion.When economists talk of a deadweight loss, they are discussing the reduction in Pareto efficiency brought about by market distortions. It happens when there is an imbalance in the allocation of goods and services because of some artificial price intervention in a free market economy. The intervention may cause too little or too much output, resulting in an inefficiency in the allocation of resources.The deadweight loss is the net loss of total economic well-being. The deadweight loss decreases the consumer surplus and producer surplus caused by a market distortion. In the process of reducing the total social surplus, the deadweight loss contributes to the Pareto inefficiency. Therefore, we can say that when economists speak of a deadweight loss, they are referring to a decrease in Pareto efficiency.
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Build a simple case study from these topics
the causes of initiative decay
threats to the sustainability of change .
change initiatives that are " blameworthy , " and should not be sustained , and those that are " praiseworthy "
Identify and apply actions that can contribute to the sustainability of change .
the pitfalls that can arise when seeking to sustain change .
Title: Sustaining Change in an Organization: A Case Study
This case study focuses on a medium-sized manufacturing company called XYZ Manufacturing Inc. The company has recently implemented a change initiative aimed at improving operational efficiency and reducing costs. However, over time, the initiative has experienced a decline in employee engagement and commitment, leading to initiative decay. The management team is concerned about the sustainability of the change and seeks to identify the causes of initiative decay, threats to sustainability, actions for sustainability, and potential pitfalls.
Causes of Initiative Decay:
Upon investigation, several causes of initiative decay were identified:
Lack of leadership support and involvement in the change process.
Insufficient communication and engagement with employees.
Resistance to change from employees who felt their perspectives were not adequately considered.
Inadequate training and support for employees to adapt to the new processes.
Inconsistent implementation and enforcement of the change initiative across departments.
Threats to the Sustainability of Change:
The threats to the sustainability of the change initiative at XYZ Manufacturing Inc. include:
Employee disengagement and loss of motivation due to perceived lack of value and impact of the change.
Reversion to old practices and resistance to the new processes.
Failure to embed the change into the organizational culture and systems.
Limited resources and support for ongoing monitoring and evaluation of the change initiative.
Blameworthy vs. Praiseworthy Change Initiatives:
Blameworthy Change Initiative: The implementation of a new performance evaluation system without proper consultation and input from employees. This initiative lacked transparency and failed to consider the unique needs and perspectives of employees, resulting in low acceptance and resistance.
Praiseworthy Change Initiative: The introduction of a cross-functional collaboration platform that promotes knowledge sharing and teamwork. This initiative involved employees at all levels, encouraged participation, and aligned with the organization's goals, resulting in increased collaboration and improved outcomes.
Actions for Sustainability of Change:
To enhance the sustainability of the change initiative, XYZ Manufacturing Inc. can take the following actions:
Strengthen leadership involvement and support throughout the change process.
Improve communication channels to ensure transparency and clarity regarding the purpose and benefits of the change.
Involve employees in decision-making and implementation processes, fostering a sense of ownership and buy-in.
Provide comprehensive training and support to enable employees to adapt to the new processes effectively.
Monitor and evaluate the progress and impact of the change initiative regularly, making adjustments as needed.
Pitfalls in Sustaining Change:
While seeking to sustain change, XYZ Manufacturing Inc. should be aware of potential pitfalls, including:
Resistance and pushback from employees who may be reluctant to embrace change.
Lack of ongoing support and resources dedicated to sustaining the change initiative.
Failure to align the change with the organization's overall strategy and goals.
Insufficient communication and reinforcement of the change message, leading to a decline in employee commitment.
Sustaining change requires proactive efforts to address the causes of initiative decay, mitigate threats to sustainability, identify blameworthy and praiseworthy initiatives, implement actions for sustainability, and navigate potential pitfalls. By understanding these factors and taking appropriate actions, XYZ Manufacturing Inc. can increase the likelihood of successfully sustaining their change initiative and achieving long-term benefits for the organization.
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List 8 activities and do PERT project, use activity one node (AON), not activity on arch. Do a PERT graph, find the critical path and assume on a scenario of uncertainty, so we can apply a cost-benefit analysis to crashing or not crashing or what activity to crash.
The Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) is a project management system for organizing and analyzing tasks. The PERT method emphasizes the interdependence of tasks. PERT is a valuable tool for project management it the identification of the critical path of a project.
Since PERT aids in the identification of the critical path of a project, it's a valuable tool for project management. In this question, we will list the 8 activities, construct a PERT graph, find the critical path, and assume an uncertainty scenario. We will then conduct a cost-benefit analysis to determine whether or not to crash an operation and which operation to crash Team Member Selection (3 weeks)Activity 3: Project Plan Creation (6 weeks)Activity 4: Finalizing Project Plan (2 weeks)Activity 5: Resource Allocation (4 weeks)Activity 6: Task Execution (10 weeks)Activity 7: Performance Monitoring The PERT graph The above image is the PERT diagram for the eight activities mentioned in The diagram uses Activity on Node (AON) methodology to represent the activities. It has arrows that connect the activities to each other to show the project's progress. It helps us to know which activities need to be completed before starting new ones.
The critical path is the longest path, which is the path that takes the most time. It is the shortest time in which the project may be finished if all activities along the critical path are completed on time. If any task on the critical path is delayed, the project will be delayed. The critical path in this case 8The shortest possible time for the project to be completed is 26 weeks, which is the sum of all activities on the critical path. The project will be delayed by a week for every week of delay on any of the activities in the critical path. if Activity 3 is delayed by one week, the project's duration will be 27 weeks .Cost-Benefit Analysis Crashing means shortening the project schedule by adding more resources to critical path activities. This results in an increase in the cost of the project. The decision to crash is a determined by the difference between the cost of crashing and the benefit of the time saved. If the cost of crashing an operation is less than the benefit of the time saved, it is advisable to crash it .Activity 6 is the most expensive to crash, with a cost of $5,000 per week. if Activity 6 is shortened by two weeks, the project duration will be reduced to 24 weeks. As a result, the project will be completed two weeks sooner, saving $6,000 in costs. As a result, it's advisable to crash Activity 6 by two weeks.
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income passes through an LLC, but losses do not.
True
False
income passes through an LLC, but losses do not. This statement is generally false.
In the United States, an LLC (Limited Liability Company) is a business structure where the income and losses of the company can pass through to the owners' personal tax returns. This means that the owners report and pay taxes on their share of the company's profits or losses.
However, there are some situations where losses may not pass through to the owners. For example, if the losses exceed the amount of money invested by the owner, then the losses may be limited or suspended. Additionally, if the LLC is classified as a C corporation for tax purposes, the losses may not pass through to the owners.
Overall though, it is most common for both income and losses to pass through to the owners of an LLC.
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Consider a market with a risk-free security and a risky asset. Assume that investor is not a price-taker so that her trading moves the expected return of a risky security P as following:
E(rP) =.08 - .05y,
where y is a fraction of her complete portfolio (in decimals) invested in the risky security. (It follows that if an investor buys more of the risky security, its price increases and the expected return decreases.) Assume that risk-free rate, rf, is 2%, σP is 25% and does not change when an investor trades, and the coefficient of risk aversion of an investor is 2. (5 MARKS) Find the optimal fraction of the complete portfolio allocated to the risky asset P by the investor? Hint: you can follow the steps we did in the class in deriving y*
a. y =0.46
b. y =0.61
c. y =0.33
d. y =0.27
e. y =0.50
The optimal fraction of the complete portfolio allocated to the risky asset P is y = 0.46.
To find the optimal fraction, we need to maximize the investor's utility. The investor's utility function is given by U = E(rP) - (1/2)σP^2y^2, where E(rP) is the expected return of the risky asset, σP is its standard deviation, and y is the fraction invested in the risky asset. By differentiating the utility function and setting it to zero, we can solve for the optimal y. Substituting the given values, we find that y = 0.46 is the optimal fraction allocated to the risky asset. Therefore, the correct answer is option (a).
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From the following statements which one is not the correct classification of accounting theory
a. Inductive approach theory b. Accounting structure theory c. Decision usefulness theory d. Interpretation theory
The statement that is not the correct classification of accounting theory is inductive approach theory. For that reason, the correct option is A.
The (option A) inductive approach Theory applies this principle to accounting to gain a better understanding of it. However, the statement that is not the correct classification of accounting theory.
Inductive reasoning, according to this theory, is one of the two main ways to make generalizations. Inductive reasoning is a type of logical thinking that involves creating a general principle based on particular observations.
Accounting theory is a set of basic premises, definitions, concepts, and propositions that explain and direct accounting practice. It provides a framework for determining the "what," "why," and "how" of financial accounting, accounting standards, and other similar accounting topics.
Moreover, it aids in the comprehension of accounting as a dynamic and developing discipline. There are numerous types of accounting theories that are classified based on the principles used and other factors.
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Question 2 (10 marks) Kelly is employed by Jasper Ltd in Sydney. In July 20XX she transferred to Perth to take up a position with Langfield Ltd an Australian Manufacturing firm. During the year ended 30th June 20XX the following events took place: Received a salary from Langfield Ltd $80,000. • Made a capital gain of $3,000 from the sale of 200 shares in Optus Ltd, a public listed company on the Australian Stock Exchange. The shares were acquired in January 2007. • Made a capital loss of $1,000 on an antique coin collection. The collection was acquired in March 2006 at a cost of $700. .Kelly indicated that her taxation return for the year ended 30 June of the previous year shows a net capital loss of $2,000 from the sale of shares. • Received a uniform allowance of $1,800. • Received a $2,000 bonus from her employer on 3rd July 20XX for her excellent performance. • Spent $300 towards protective shields (she kept all necessary records). Required Calculate Kelly's taxable income and tax liability for the year ending 30.06.20XX. In your response ensure you state the appropriate legislation, tax rulings or common law cases to support your answer.
Kelly's taxable income and tax liability for the year ending 30.06.20XX can be calculated as follows and the total tax liability is $18,798.14.
Salary received from Langfield Ltd = $80,000Uniform allowance = $1,800Bonus from employer = $2,000Protective shields = $300Total assessable income = $84,100Calculation of Capital Gains: Capital Gain on sale of shares = $3,000Capital Loss on antique coin collection = $1,000Net capital loss carried forward from previous year = ($2,000)Therefore, the Net Capital Gain = $0 as there is no net gain after offsetting the capital loss.Taxable Income = Assessable Income - DeductionsTaxable Income = $84,100 - $0 = $84,100Calculation of Tax Liability:According to the Australian Taxation Office, the following tax rates and thresholds are applicable for the year 2019-2020:The first $18,200 of taxable income is tax-freeThe next $18,201 to $37,000 is taxed at 19%The next $37,001 to $90,000 is taxed at 32.5%The next $90,001 to $180,000 is taxed at 37%Anything above $180,000 is taxed at 45%Tax on $84,100:First $18,200 is tax-freeTaxable income between $18,201 and $37,000 is ($37,000 - $18,201) x 0.19 = $3,572.19Taxable income between $37,001 and $84,100 is ($84,100 - $37,001) x 0.325 = $15,225.95Therefore, the total tax liability is $18,798.14.
In this case, Kelly has a total taxable income of $84,100 which is calculated after adding the salary received from Langfield Ltd, uniform allowance, bonus from employer and protective shields. After adjusting the Capital Gains, the Net Capital Gain comes out to be $0 as there is no gain after offsetting the capital loss. Therefore, Kelly's taxable income is $84,100 which is taxable according to the tax rates provided by the Australian Taxation Office for the year 2019-2020.As per the tax rates, the first $18,200 of the taxable income is tax-free. The income between $18,201 and $37,000 is taxed at a rate of 19%. Similarly, the income between $37,001 and $90,000 is taxed at a rate of 32.5%. The income between $90,001 and $180,000 is taxed at a rate of 37%. Anything above $180,000 is taxed at 45%. Therefore, Kelly's tax liability for the year ending 30.06.20XX comes out to be $18,798.14.
Thus, Kelly's taxable income is $84,100 and tax liability for the year ending 30.06.20XX is $18,798.14.
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for each policy listed, identify whether it is a command-and-control policy (regulation), tradable permit system, corrective subsidy, or corrective tax.
The four types of environmental policies are command-and-control policies (regulation), tradable permit systems, corrective subsidies, and corrective taxes.
Command-and-control policies are regulations that set specific standards for pollution levels and require companies to meet those standards. Tradable permit systems allow companies to buy and sell permits that allow them to emit a certain amount of pollution.
Corrective subsidies are payments given to companies or individuals who engage in environmentally friendly practices. Corrective taxes are taxes placed on companies that emit pollution, with the goal of reducing the amount of pollution they produce. To determine which type of policy is being used, it is important to consider the specific measures being taken and the overall goal of the policy.
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Consider the following regression model: vi = a +Ba+u₁. where the error term u has mean zero and variance o2, and u is independently distributed of z. You are told that both y; and are subject to the same measurement error w₁. Instead of observing ((,)}, you are given a random sample {(1,)}where: y₁ = y + wi, and x₁ = x + w₁. The measurement error w, has zero mean, and is assumed to be distributed independently of u₁, x, and y
The given regression model vi = a + Ba + u₁ incorporates measurement errors in both the dependent variable y and the independent variable x. The error term u has a mean of zero and variance σ², and it is independent of the measurement error w. In the observed data, we have y₁ = y + w₁ and x₁ = x + w₁, where w₁ is the measurement error with zero mean and is independent of u₁, x, and y.
In the regression model, vi represents the observed values of the dependent variable, which is a linear combination of the intercept a, the slope coefficient B, the true value of the independent variable a, and the error term u₁. The error term u₁ has a mean of zero and variance σ², indicating that it captures the unobserved factors affecting the dependent variable. However, both y and x suffer from measurement errors. The observed value of y, denoted as y₁, is the true value of y plus the measurement error w₁. Similarly, the observed value of x, denoted as x₁, is the true value of x plus the measurement error w₁. The measurement error w₁ has a mean of zero and is independent of u₁, x, and y, meaning that it does not depend on the unobserved factors or the true values of x and y.
This regression model with measurement errors complicates the estimation of the parameters a and B. Special techniques, such as instrumental variables or errors-in-variables regression, may be necessary to address the measurement error issue and obtain consistent estimates of the parameters. These techniques take into account the relationships between the observed variables and the underlying true variables while accounting for the measurement errors, allowing for more accurate inference in the presence of measurement error.
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