Transduction of cellular genes molecular process is found only in retroviruses.
A retrovirus is a type of virus that inserts a DNA copy of its RNA genome into the DNA of a host cell that it infects, modifying the genome of that cell. Once within the host cell's cytoplasm, the virus employs its own reverse transcriptase enzyme to generate DNA from its RNA genome, which is the opposite of the usual pattern, so retro. The new DNA is then incorporated into the host cell genome by an integrase enzyme, at which time the retroviral DNA is referred to as a provirus. The host cell then treats the viral DNA as part of its own genome, transcribing and translating the viral genes alongside the cell's own genes, creating the proteins required to build new copies of the virus.
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Which of the following reads the nucleotide sequence of a gene and synthesizes the corresponding primary transcript? a. DNA polymerase b. Ribosome
The elements required for eukaryotic transcription include DNA polymerase, universal transcription factors, DNA, and RNA nucleotides.
The process by which RNA is created from genetic information encoded in DNA is called transcription. This process is carried out in eukaryotes by RNA polymerase and a number of common eukaryotic transcription factors. Using RNA nucleotides, RNA polymerase reads the DNA template and creates a complementary RNA molecule. Ribosomes use the RNA molecule created during transcription as a template for protein synthesis. It's crucial to remember that neither transcription nor the production of RNA use DNA nucleotides or ribosomes. DNA polymerase, common transcription factors, DNA, and RNA nucleotides make up the ideal combination of elements required for eukaryotic transcription.
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What does the morphological species concept State?
The morphological species concept states that individuals belong to the same species if they share similar physical characteristics or morphology.
This concept is based on the idea that members of the same species share a common ancestry and have evolved similar physical characteristics as a result. It is one of several different species concepts used in biology to define and categorize different types of organisms. However, the morphological species concept can be limited because some species can have a lot of variation in physical traits within a population, while others can be very similar to other species in terms of physical appearance.
As a result, scientists often use multiple species concepts in combination to get a more complete picture of how different organisms are related to one another. Other species concepts include the biological species concept, which defines species based on their ability to interbreed and produce fertile offspring, and the phylogenetic species concept, which defines species based on their evolutionary history and genetic relationships.
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if a diploid animal with 48 chromosomes mated with a diploid animal with 46 chromisomes how many chromosomes would the offspring have
If a diploid animal with 48 chromosomes mated with a diploid animal with 46 chromisomes then chromosome of offspring of these two animals would have 47 chromosomes.
When two organisms with different chromosome numbers mate, the offspring's chromosome number can vary.
A diploid animal with 48 chromosomes (2n=48) is mating with a diploid animal with 46 chromosomes (2n=46) in this case.
The first step is to calculate each parent's haploid number, which is half the diploid number. The haploid number for a 48-chromosome animal is 24, and the haploid number for a 46-chromosome animal is 23.
If they mated, then the chance of survival of the offspring is very less. If it survives, it will have 2n=47 (n=23+1) chromosomes
This is due to the fact that the haploid number of chromosomes from both parents adds up to 47.
Aneuploidy is the medical term for this condition. In this case, it is 'monosomy,' which occurs when one of a pair's chromosomes is missing. (Trisomy is the condition of having one extra COPY of an existing chromosome, but in this case it is an entirely different chromosome without a pair).
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describe how resting membrane potential is established and maintained in a neuron including the ion channels involved, the relative ion concentrations across the plasma membrane, plasma membrane permeability to ions, and electrochemical gradients.
The operation of ion channels that are selective for certain ions establishes and maintains the resting membrane potential (RMP) in a neuron.
Ions can diffuse through the neuron's plasma membrane thanks to these ion channels. The sodium ions (Na+) outside the cell and the potassium ions (K+) inside the cell are both more abundant in the neuron.
Na+ ions flow into the cell up its electrochemical gradient while K+ ions migrate out of the neuron down its electrochemical gradient because K+ channels are more permeable than Na+ channels.
These ion concentrations and ion channel permeabilities combine to produce a negative RMP. This negative RMP gives the neuron the electrical potential required for action potential production and propagation.
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The country of Zombie Land's consumer spending was $200 for
2020. Its investment spending was $6000 and its government
spending was $1000. Its exports were $200, while its imports were
$750. What was Zombie Land's Nominal GDP for 2020?
O $7,200
O $6,650
O $8,150
O $7,750
According to the question zombie Land's Nominal GDP for 2020 is $7,750.
What is GDP?Gross Domestic Product (GDP) measures the total value of goods and services produced in a country over a specific period of time. It is the most widely used indicator of a country’s economic health and performance. GDP is often used as a benchmark to compare economic performance between countries. It is also used to compare economic performance over time. In general, a higher GDP indicates a stronger economy. GDP is calculated by adding up the value of all goods and services produced in a year across all sectors of the economy. This includes goods and services produced by businesses, government, and households. Additionally, it includes investments from abroad that are used to produce goods and services.
Zombie Land's Nominal GDP for 2020 can be calculated by adding the four components of aggregate demand (consumer spending, investment spending, government spending, and net exports) together. This gives us ($200 + $6,000 + $1,000 + ($200 - $750)) = $7,750.
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cardiac muscle tissue contains fewer mitochondria than are found in skeletal muscle tissue. true/false
Answer:
true
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The separation of the Archaebacteria into a separate domain indicates
A. That these organisms are very different from eubacteria and from eukaryotes.
B. That organisms should never be classified according to how they appear (morphological characteristics).
C. That early taxonomist rushed to classify them without closely examining them.
D. That optical viewing techniques have greatly improved so that we can better view these microorganisms.
E. None of the above.
The separation of the Archaebacteria into a separate domain indicates that these organisms are very different from eubacteria and from eukaryotes.
Single-celled organisms make up the realm of Archaea. These microbes are prokaryotes since they do not have cell nuclei. In the Archaebacteria kingdom, archaea were formerly categorized as bacteria, hence the name archaebacteria. However, this term is no longer used.
The differences between archaeal cells and the bacteria and eukaryotes are due to their special characteristics. Multiple recognised phyla are used to further categorise archaea. Classification is challenging because the majority have not been isolated in a lab and have only been found in ambient samples using their gene sequences. The ability of them to create endospores is uncertain.
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which type of gland would release its secretion through exocytosis with no harm to the glandular cell itself?
Merocrine type of gland would release its secretion through exocytosis with no harm to the glandular cell itself.
PhysiologyThe most widespread subtype is merocrine glands. Exocytosis is the process through which merocrine gland secretions leave the cell. There is no cell toxicity in this secretion process. The merocrine sweat gland is a prime example of merocrine secretion.merocrine glands Through a process known as exocytosis, merocrine glands expel their chemicals. The cells aren't harmed at all during exocytosis. One type of merocrine gland is the eccrine sweat gland. The apocrine glands Apocrine glands form buds out of the cell membranes that separate into the duct.An example of an epithelial tissue is glandular tissue. Endocrine and exocrine glands are two different types of glands that are created by the glandular tissue. Substances are produced and secreted into body fluids by endocrine glands.For more information on merocrine gland kindly visit to
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what is the correct order of the stages in the scientific method for investigating whether tomatoes produce more fruit in coller or warmer temperatures.
The correct order of the stages in the scientific method for investigating whether tomatoes produce more fruit in a cooler or warmer temperatures. is :
Your hypthesis is that tomatoes will produce more fruit during the cooler season of spring.One group of tomato plants are grown in the greenhouse with constant temperature of 22 degrees celsius while the other group is grown in a greenhouse with a constant temperature of 30 degrees celsius.the tomatoes grown at 22 degrees celsius produce more fruit in the spring which temperatures are mild compared to tomatoes grown in the summer.The hypothesis is supported.Tomato fruit settings are very important to keep the temperature in the ideal range.The optimum temperature is 60-75°F (night) and 60-90°F (day). Studies have shown that exposing plants to temperatures above 40°C for 3 hours on 2 consecutive days may result in fruit set failure.
Cooling stunts leaf growth and can cause wilting, pitting, leaf surface necrosis, and increased disease susceptibility. Low soil temperatures also stunt plant growth and hinder root development. Temperatures below 10°C during flowering can affect pollination and set fruit. Contrary to popular belief, tomatoes don't like heat. They prefer him 75-95 degrees. Many vegetables, including tomatoes and peppers, lose their flowers if the daytime temperature is too high (above 85°C) or nighttime temperature is too high (above 70°C).
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Complete question:
What is the correct order of the stages in the scientific method for investigating whether tomatoes produce more fruit in a cooler or warmer temperatures.
1. One group of tomato plants are grown in the greenhouse with constant temperature of 22 degrees celsius while the other group is grown in a greenhouse with a constant temperature of 30 degrees celsius.
2. The hypothesis is supported.
3. the tomatoes grown at 22 degrees celsius produce more fruit in the spring which temperatures are mild compared to tomatoes grown in the summer.
4. Your hypthesis is that tomatoes will produce more fruit during the cooler season of spring
What is the purpose of the enzymes in barley?
The primary purpose of enzymes in barley is to catalyze biochemical transformations in the grain to produce sugar, starches, and other compounds used in brewing and baking.
These enzymes are in charge of dissolving complicated proteins and carbohydrates into simple sugars and amino acids, which yeast may utilise to ferment and make alcohol.
Enzymes are also necessary for the conversion of starches into dextrins and maltose, which enables brewers to create various types of beer. Enzymes may also break down proteins into amino acids, which give finished beer its flavour and fragrance.
Lastly, enzymes are in charge of creating flavouring substances like glycerol, which gives beer its sweetness and full body.
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why are archaea considered a monophyletic group according to the three-domain hypothesis?
A. Because this group includes all organisms exept eukaryotes.
B. Because this group evolved after the origin of bacteria.
C. Because this group includes an ancestral population and all of its descendants.
D. Because all member of this group lack membrane-bound organelles.
Archaea are considered a monophyletic group according to the three-domain hypothesis because this group evolved after the origin of bacteria.
Due to certain characteristics, archaeal cells are distinct from the bacteria and eukaryota in the other two domains. There are numerous recognised phyla that further divide archaea. Since the majority haven't been isolated in a lab and have only been found in environmental samples by their gene sequences, classification is challenging. It is unknown if they are able to produce endospores. The size and shape of bacteria and most archaea are comparable, however some archaea, such the flat, square cells of Haloquadratum walsbyi, exhibit a wide range of shapes. Despite resembling bacteria in form, archaea have more eukaryotic-like genes and metabolic pathways than bacteria do. The transcriptional and translational enzymes are a good example of this.
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Gradual drifting of membrane potential toward threshold in autorhythmic cells is termed a
A) receptor potential.
B) pacemaker potential.
C) gated potential.
D) ligand-gated potential.
E) action potential.
Pacemaker potential refers to the gradual drift of membrane potential towards threshold in autorhythmic cells. The ideal selection is B).
What are receptors and what do they do?A distinct family of proteins called receptors work by attaching to a particular ligand molecule. The receptor can shift conformation when a ligand attaches to it, sending a signal into in the cell. In some circumstances, the ligand will gradually diffuse away while the receptors stay attached to the cell's surface.
Describe a receptor using an example :Numerous immune cells, including B cells, T cells, cell lines, and monocytes, include these receptors. Other sections of the body outside the immune system include receptors. The senses, which include the ears, eyes, and nose,
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Which amino acid is most likely to participate in hydrogen bonding with water?
A. Asparagine
B. Leucine
C. Valine
D. Alanine
E. phenyilanine
The amino acid asparagine is most likely to form a hydrogen bond with water.
In contrast to other amino acids, polar or hydrophilic amino acids—those having hydroxyl groups, like serine, threonine, and tyrosine, or amide groups, like asparagine or glutamine—are readily able to establish hydrogen bonds with water molecules.
The amino acid has a total hydrogen bonding capacity of 13, including 8 from the amino group and 2 from the carboxyl group, and 5 from the side chain.
Since the amide group may absorb two and contribute two hydrogen bonds, asparagine has a high potential to form hydrogen bonds.
The side chains of the amino acids glutamine and asparagine both have amide groups, which are typically hydrogen-bonded anytime they are found inside a protein. The sidechain of asparagine is a versatile hydrogen bond donor and acceptor. An oxygen atom that can serve as a hydrogen bond acceptor and a nitrogen atom that can serve as a hydrogen bond donor can both be found on the sidechain of asparagine.
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which food products in the united states are often genetically modified using genetic engineering? which food products in the united states are often genetically modified using genetic engineering?
Corn and soyabean are the food products in the United States that are often genetically modified using genetic engineering.
United States often produces genetically modified food products like corn and soyabean to resist insect pests and tolerate herbicides applied to the crops. GMO corn is reduces the need for fertilizers, and is effective in controlling pest population without them. GMO soy is also produced for animal purposes and is used as a ingredient in processed foods.
Genetically modified organisms, or GMO, are the ones whose genetic material or DNA has been altered using genetic engineering so as to favor the desirable characters. For example, Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) cotton is an example of a GMO that produces proteins or toxins harmful for pests, but are safe for other organisms consuming it.
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Which amino acid is most likely to participate in hydrogen bonding with water? To answer this you will need to look at the R-groups (.e. side chains) of each the amino acids. Use can use the slide in the lecture notes or go to Fig. 4.2 (Structures of the 20 amino acids) found in the text book.a. asparagine b. Oleucinec. valined. alanine e. phenyilanine
Answer: chicken amino acids
Explanation:
Which of these is NOT true of the Kingdom Aveolata?a. Some members of this kingdom are decomposers, showing ecological convergence with the fungi.b. Some member of this kingdom a free-living and covered with cilia.c. Some members of this kingdom cause human diseases that require an insect vector.d. Some members of this kingdom are an important component of the phytoplankton.
The statement that is NOT true of the Kingdom Aveolata is option C. Some members of this kingdom cause human diseases that require an insect vector.
Unicellular organisms such as ciliates, dinoflagellates, and apicomplexans are members of the Aveolata Kingdom. These organisms play an important role in aquatic ecosystems, and many of them can photosynthesis. Some members of this kingdom are free-living and covered in cilia, while others are important decomposers, demonstrating ecological convergence with fungi. However, none of them cause human diseases that necessitate the use of an insect vector.
The Kingdom Aveolata is a diverse group of protists that includes ciliates, dinoflagellates, and apicomplexans as well as unicellular and multicellular organisms. They are distinguished by the presence of small cavities beneath their cell membranes known as alveoli.
Option A is correct because some members of this kingdom are decomposers that play important roles in nutrient cycling. Option B is also correct, because some members of this kingdom are free-living and have cilia on their bodies that they use for movement and feeding. Option D is also correct, as some members of this kingdom, such as dinoflagellates, are a component of phytoplankton and play an important role in aquatic food webs.
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which type of cell junction allows cardiac muscle tissue to transmit signals rapidly?
Gap Junctions allows cardiac muscle tissue to transmit signals rapidly.
The intercalated disks that join the cardiac muscle cells (myocytes) end to end within the heart are known as this. These are atypical transverse thickenings of the sarcolemma, which contain desmosomes that bind the cells together and to which the myofibrils are linked and function as a structural support for the cells. The gap junctions, which are located near to the intercalated discs, allow action potentials to move directly from one myocyte to the next. More specifically, the disks bind the cells collectively by protein channels in addition to mechanical attachment. Proteins work with neighbouring cell membranes to form the strong mechanical connections. Through the channels that the protein connexin creates, the myocytes are electrically connected to one another. Ions can pass between cells thanks to these channels.
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what enzyme forms covalent bonds between restriction fragments?what enzyme forms covalent bonds between restriction fragments?dna primasedna helicasesingle-strand binding proteindna polymerasedna ligase
DNA ligase is an enzyme that helps covalent connections between phosphate and the sugar of one nucleotide form. Ester bond is the name of it.
DNA ligase is an enzyme that helps covalent connections between phosphate and the sugar of one nucleotide form. Ester bond is the name of it. DNA ligase is an enzyme that helps covalent connections between phosphate and the sugar of one nucleotide form. Ester bond is the name of it. The complementary pairing of bases from the first and second strands creates hydrogen bonds between the two strands. Even though each of these hydrogen bonds is weak individually, taken together, they are tremendously strong. a guide for DNA replication.To catalyse a chemical process, enzymes engage in a variety of interactions with their substrates. In covalent catalysis, the R groups on the side chains of the amino acids in the enzyme's active site establish covalent connections with the substrate molecule.
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hypoparathyroidism causes hypocalcemia by: a. increasing phosphate excretion b. increasing serum magnesium c. blocking release of calcium from bone d. blocking action of intestinal vitamin d
Hypoparathyroidism causes hypocalcemia by d) blocking the action of intestinal vitamin D. The parathyroid hormone (PTH), which is produced by the parathyroid gland, plays a key role in maintaining calcium homeostasis in the body.
PTH acts on several organs, including the kidneys, bones, and intestines, to increase calcium levels in the blood. One of the ways it does this is by stimulating the production of active vitamin D in the kidneys, which in turn increases calcium absorption in the intestines.
In hypoparathyroidism, the parathyroid gland does not produce enough PTH, leading to decreased calcium levels in the blood. This occurs because the production of active vitamin D is reduced, which decreases calcium absorption in the intestines, and also leads to increased calcium and phosphate loss through the kidneys.
Hypocalcemia can cause a variety of symptoms, such as muscle cramps, tremors, and seizures, and it can be a medical emergency if left untreated.
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How do chromosomes move during meiosis?
The chromosomes start to move toward the cell's equator in the example described.
What is chromosome and its function?Chromosomes exhibit the highest degree of protein or DNA organization. Its basic function of chromosomes is to transport DNA as well as transmit genetic material through one population to the next. Chromosomes play a crucial role in cell division. They protect the DNA against tangles and harm.
Can a female have XY chromosome?"XY chromosome girls were genetically masculine, but the male qualities never appear due to a number of factors, which including flaws in the genes that regulate fertility. They experience life first as girls, then as women, while some of them can even give birth.
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Scientific Method in Action 1 The Strange Case of Beriberi In 1887 a strange nerve disease attacked the people in the Dutch East Indies. The disease was beriberi Symptoms of the disease included weakness and loss or are Watims offen died of heart failure. Scientists with beribers. The injected chickens became sick. However, so did a group of chickens that were more information with bacteria grain rice, but during the experiment, the chickens were fed polished rice. Dr. Eijkman researched this One of the scientists, Dr. Eijkman, noticed something before the experiment, all the chickens had eaten whole interesting case and found that polished rice lacked thiamine, a vitamin necessary for good health 1. State the Problem 2. What was the hypothesis? Strange nerve disease attached People in Dutch East Indies The disease beriberi might be caused by bacteria They injected chickens with bacteria from the blood or patients 3. How was the hypothesis tested?
The hypothesis was tested by injecting chickens with bacteria from the blood of patients with beriberi, as well as feeding them polished rice lacking thiamine.
What is thiamine?A necessary nutrient that is important for the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats is thiamine, usually referred to as vitamin B1. It is a water-soluble vitamin that the body cannot produce on its own; therefore, it must be received through food or supplements. Thiamine has a role in the synthesis of energy from food and is necessary for the healthy operation of the neurological system, heart, and muscles. Thiamine deficiency can result in a number of medical conditions, including beriberi, a condition marked by weakness, loss of appetite, and nerve damage. Whole grains, legumes, nuts, and meat are among the foods high in thiamine.
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briefly discuss the early evolution of life, from the first organisms to the development of photosynthesis and oxygen production.
The process of cellular respiration must have access to oxygen in order to take place in all multicellular organisms, including both plants and animals. Cells go through cellular respiration in the presence of oxygen gas, generating energy from food. Water and carbon dioxide are byproducts of the process. These organisms transform the chemical energy for use in metabolic processes within the body.
What is evolution ?Evolution is the transformation in a biological population's genetic make-up over many generations. These characteristics are the manifestations of genes that pass from one parent to the next during reproduction.
There are several patterns that evolution may adopt throughout time. Predation pressures and environmental conditions can have a variety of consequences on how the evolution of the species exposed to them. shows the three main types of evolution—divergent, convergent, and parallel—in action.
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A typical eukaryotic cell that would have the greatest amount of mitochondria would be?
A. Liver
B. Muscle
C. Fat
D. Skin
Answer:
B. Muscle
Explanation:
Muscle cells have lots of mitochondria because they need to be able to generate a lot of energy at once.
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What did Rosalind Franklin contribute to the field of science and how did here work impact society?
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), a component of chromosomes that serves to encode genetic information, was discovered to have a molecular structure by a British scientist most renowned for her contributions to that research.
What Rosalind Franklin contribute to the field of science?Dr. Rosalind Franklin's X-ray diffraction research at King's College contributed to the 1953 discovery of the DNA structure.
She established the double-helix structure of deoxyribonucleic acid, the molecule responsible for carrying out the genetic instructions for the development of all living things, by creating the famous Photo 51.
The diagnosis of genetic abnormalities, and the development of new medications, have all been significantly improved by an understanding of the structure and function of DNA. It is essential for identifying pathogens as well.
Therefore, The exploration of disease pathways, the evaluation of a person's genetic predisposition to particular diseases.
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how dna controls the workings of the cell?
DNA controls the workings of the cell by providing instructions for the synthesis of proteins and enzymes, which in turn control all of the biochemical processes that occur within the cell.
For example, DNA is responsible for encoding the instructions that tell the cell how to build specific proteins and enzymes, which will then help the cell to carry out its specific functions. Additionally, DNA helps to regulate gene expression, which is the process by which certain genes are turned on or off in response to certain environmental or internal cues. As such, DNA plays a critical role in controlling the workings of the cell.
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if a spontaneous mutation occurred in the 3rd exon of the female drosophila tra gene, how would this mutation impact her future offspring? (mutation occurred in her eggs, not her own somatic cells)
An alteration to an organism's DNA sequence is known as a mutation. Viral infection, mistakes in DNA replication during cell division, and exposure to mutagens are all ways in which mutations can develop.
This mutation is carried by all male offspring of the mutation. This is incorrect; since a guy can have female kids, they will get XX sexual chromosomes instead of Y chromosomes when they reproduce. B. The mutation is present in all male progeny of a female with the mutation, but not in any female offspring. THIS IS FALSE, AS A FEMALE INVESTITS X CHROMOSOMES. D. The mutation is present in every child born to a female who bears it. THIS IS FALSE, AS A FEMALE INVESTITS X CHROMOSOMES. Although our cells are constantly changing, only a small percentage of these changes have a negative effect on our health. Compared to what we typically see in science fiction films, this is very different.
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refer to the flowchart. which phrase best fills in the missing information in the flowchart? chemical energy stored in electron transport proteins chemical energy stored in oxygen chemical energy stored in a proton concentration gradient chemical energy stored in atp synthase
The flowchart's missing information refers to the manner in which chemical energy is stored after the electron transport chain. The term "chemical energy stored in a proton concentration gradient" best fills in the blanks in the flowchart.
The electron transport chain (ETC) is the final stage of cellular respiration, which is a metabolic process that transforms glucose and other organic molecules into ATP energy (adenosine triphosphate). During the ETC, electrons are transported via a sequence of protein complexes in the inner mitochondrial membrane, eventually generating a proton gradient across the membrane.
Because electrons given to the ETC are utilised to push protons (H+) from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembranous space, a larger concentration of protons is produced in the intermembranous space than in the matrix. The protons then return to the matrix through an ATP synthase enzyme, which uses the energy produced by the flow to fuel the synthesis of ATP from ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and inorganic phosphate.
As a result, chemical energy is stored in the ETC in the form of a proton concentration gradient, which is formed by pumping protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane. ATP synthase then uses this stored energy to power the creation of ATP, the fundamental energy currency of cells.
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an increase in blood viscosity will cause an increase in total peripheral resistance. T/F
True. Total peripheral resistance will rise with a rise in blood viscosity.
Given a steady systolic blood pressure, an increase in blood viscosity will inevitably result in an increase in total peripheral resistance (TPR), which will reduce blood flow. On the other hand, blood flow & perfusion will increase when viscosity falls. A higher risk of morbidity and mortality from a number of deadly conditions, such as cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disease, is linked to a higher whole blood viscosity. Increased viscosity worsens organ perfusion by increasing blood flow resistance, taxing the heart's pumping capacity. Some anaemic people have low hematocrits, which results in lower blood viscosities. Temperature is a significant component that affects blood viscosity.
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a fossilized skull you unearthed has a carbon-14/carbon-12 ratio about that of the skulls of present-day animals. approximately how many years old is the fossilized skull?
The half-life of carbon-14 is too short to date fossils older than 50,000 years, hence the fossilised skull is too ancient to be determined by carbon dating.
The ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12 can be used to estimate the age of a fossil since carbon-14 is a radioactive element that decays with time. However, carbon-14 only works for dating anything up to 50,000 years old because of its comparatively short half-life of roughly 5,700 years. Therefore, a fossilised skull is probably younger than 50,000 years old if its carbon-14/carbon-12 ratio is the same as that of modern animals. To provide a more accurate age estimate, further dating techniques like potassium-argon dating or uranium-lead dating could be required.
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what a molecular process found only in retroviruses?
Only simple retroviruses, not complex retroviruses, have been found to transmit cellular genes. It is unclear why these two viruses differ, but it may have something to do with how retroviruses acquire cellular sequences or how the viral genome is organised, which must be tolerant of foreign insertion.
Retroviruses carry changed cellular genes that give the virus a high level of tumorigenicity. The growth-regulatory genes in these viral or v-onc genes are typically altered. Protooncogenes or c-onc genes are the names given to their cellular progenitors (Bishop 1983, Varmus 1984, Cooper 1990). Gain of function of a positive growth signal is caused by over expression or incorrect expression, which is frequently paired with mutation of an oncogene that has integrated into a viral genome.
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